International Library of Technology, v. 333: Hardware, Estimating, and Mill Design

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Title: International Library of Technology, v. 333: Hardware, Estimating, and Mill Design
Author: Various
Language: English
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Transcriber’s Notes:

Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
in the original text.
Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
in the original text.
Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
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Antiquated spellings have been preserved.
Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.

_International Library of Technology_
333

Hardware, Estimating,
and Mill Design

223 ILLUSTRATIONS

Prepared Under Supervision of
W. S. LOWNDES, Ph. B.

DIRECTOR, SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE
AND BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE
ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING
QUANTITIES
MILL DESIGN

Published by
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
SCRANTON, PA.
1925

Builders’ Hardware: Copyright, 1908,
by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 1:
Copyright, 1899, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Copyright, 1908, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 2:
Copyright, 1899, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY.
Copyright, 1909, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

Mill Design:
Copyright, 1907, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

PRESS OF
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
SCRANTON, PA.

PREFACE

The volumes of the International Library of Technology are made up
of Instruction Papers, or Sections, comprising the various courses
of instruction for students of the International Correspondence
qualified both technically and by experience to write with authority,
and in many cases they are regularly employed elsewhere in practical
work as experts. The manuscripts are then carefully edited to make
them suitable for correspondence instruction. The Instruction Papers
are written clearly and in the simplest language possible, so as to
make them readily understood by all students. Necessary technical
expressions are clearly explained when introduced.

The great majority of our students wish to prepare themselves for
advancement in their vocations or to qualify for more congenial
occupations. Usually they are employed and able to devote only a few
hours a day to study. Therefore every effort must be made to give
them practical and accurate information in clear and concise form and
to make this information include all of the essentials but none of
the non-essentials. To make the text clear, illustrations are used
freely. These illustrations are especially made by our own Illustrating
Department in order to adapt them fully to the requirements of the text.

In the table of contents that immediately follows are given the titles
of the Sections included in this volume, and under each title are
listed the main topics discussed. At the end of the volume will be
found a complete index, so that any subject treated can be quickly
found.

INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY

CONTENTS

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE _Section Page_
Staple Hardware 55 1
Cut and Wire Nails 55 2
Wood Screws, Expansion and Special Bolts 55 11
Sash Weights 55 18
Finishing Hardware 55 20
Metals and Their Manipulation 55 20
Hinges, Hinge Butts, and Special Hinges 55 24
Locks and Their Appurtenances 55 55
Window and Sash Hardware 55 77
Door Hardware and its Application 55 102
Shutter Hardware 55 129
Cabinet Trim 55 132
Design and Specification of Hardware for Buildings 55 138
Hardware of Special Design 55 138
Selection, Estimation, and Application of Hardware 55 146
Schedules and Drawings for the Hardware Contractor 55 154
Glass and Glazing 55 157

ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES
Scope of Subject 60 1
Approximate Estimating 60 3
Accurate Estimating Schedule 60 5
Excavation 60 11
Concrete Work 60 18
Masonry 60 24
Brickwork 60 31
Carpentry 60 38
Roofing 60 46
Plastering 60 58
Joinery 60 61
Structural Steel 60 69
Heating and Ventilating System 60 69
Plumbing and Gas-Fitting 60 70
Painting and Papering 60 72
Glazing 60 78

Example in Estimating 61 1
Excavation 61 2
Stonework 61 4
Brickwork 61 8
Carpentry 61 10
Roofing 61 21
Lathing and Plastering 61 22
Joinery 61 23
Hardware 61 33
Heating and Ventilating System 61 35
Plumbing 61 37
Gas-Fitting 61 40
Wiring 61 41
Painting 61 42
Summary of Cost of Building 61 44

MILL DESIGN
Site and Arrangement 64 1
Preliminary Considerations 64 1
Types of Mill Construction 64 13
Girder and Plank-on-Edge Construction 64 13
Standard Slow-Burning Construction 64 18
Factory Buildings of Reinforced Concrete 64 23
Steel-Frame Mill Buildings 64 31
Details of Mill Construction and Design 64 34
The Power Plant 64 41
Chimneys 64 45
Fire-Protection of Mill Buildings 64 50

INDEX i

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE

STAPLE HARDWARE

INTRODUCTION

=1.= The hardware used in building construction may be classified
as _staple_ and _finished_. =Staple hardware= may be considered as
including such materials as nails and spikes, bolts and screws, sash
weights, and other materials of this character, while =finished
hardware= may include such devices and appliances as locks and latches,
hinges, door and window trimmings, and the various metallic fixtures
used in equipping the different classes of buildings. To this last
classification the term _builders’ hardware_ is frequently applied.

Strictly speaking, glass cannot be considered as hardware;
nevertheless, it is frequently supplied to the builder through hardware
supply houses, and it is so closely allied to the hardware of building
construction that the subject of glass, its trade terms, and other
information relating to its characteristics, will not be out of order
in this Section.

While little consideration is given to the hardware on the average
building, there is no more important part of the construction, nor
one to which greater attention should be given. On the quality and
the selection of proper hardware depends the avoidance of the petty
annoyances often found in buildings where this subject has not received
proper consideration.

The architect should be well informed regarding this subject, and
should be in a position to know the kind and quality of hardware
that, when specified, will give the best results. He will find that a
thorough knowledge of builders’ hardware will assist him materially
in writing comprehensive specifications for this portion of the work.
Consequently, the writing of the hardware specifications will receive
attention in this Section, and the proper manner of estimating, or
“taking off,” hardware will also be considered.

CUT AND WIRE NAILS

=2. Cut Nails.=—The primitive nail was made or forged by hand, and
this mode of manufacture still exists in certain sections of Europe.
These hand-made nails sold at exorbitant prices compared with the
machine-made nails of today.

The manufacture of cut nails is less automatic and requires more manual
labor than is necessary in the making of wire nails. The iron or steel
is first rolled into sheets, the thickness of which is equal to the
thickness of the nail; it is then cut into strips as wide as the nail
is long. This strip of metal is fed into the nail machine and sheared
off in tapering strips having the form of the nail, when it is seized
by clamps that hold it just long enough for the heading hammer to
strike the blow that forms the head.

The nail manufactured in this manner is known as the =cut nail=, and is
much superior to the wire nail, which is of more recent production. Not
only has the cut nail greater holding power, but it is more durable,
especially when used in damp places.

=3.= Nearly all cut nails used at the present time are made from
sheet steel, a small percentage only being manufactured of iron, for
which the makers charge a slightly higher price. The steel nail is
undoubtedly the best for use in hardwoods, but the iron nail will
outlast it where dampness exists, as, for instance, in shingling, etc.

As shown in Fig. 1, cut nails are made in many styles and sizes, and
for various purposes. They are also known by the same trade term for
the various styles. Cut nails are heavier than wire nails, and as they
count fewer to the pound, are more expensive at equivalent prices. All
nails are sold at base prices per keg of 100 pounds, the “extras” for
smaller and special nails being added to the base price. For special
work, certain types of nails can be obtained in copper and brass.

=4. Size and Gauge of Nails.=—Both cut and wire nails are designated by
the trade term _penny_. The term penny as applied to nails is a relic
of medieval England. This designation was due, it is said, to the fact
that it defined the _cost per hundred nails_, so that _tenpenny nails_
would mean that 100 of such nails cost _ten pence_. A more likely
interpretation of the term is that it implied the _weight_ and not the
_cost_, and that the term penny is a corruption of the Old English word
_pun’_ (for pound), so that _tenpunny_ or _tenpenny_ implied that 1,000
of such nails weighed 10 pounds. The smallest standard size of nail is
known as _twopenny_ or _threepenny_, while the largest is designated
as _sixtypenny_. These sizes range in length from 1 to 6 inches. In
designating the size of the nail in list prices, the symbol “d” (for
penny) is used, so that a nail about 2 inches long is designated as 6d.
The thickness, or diameter, is indicated by the gauge number, the gauge
of cut nails being an indication of the thickness of plate from which
they are cut, while the gauge of wire nails is the size of the wire
from which the nails are formed. The different wire gauges and their
decimal equivalents of an inch are given in Table I. The special wire
gauge commonly used to indicate the size of the nail is the Birmingham.
In Table II is given a list of the stock sizes of standard, common, cut
nails. This table, besides giving the thickness of the nail and its
length, gives the number of nails to the pound.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.]

TABLE I

STANDARD WIRE GAUGES AND THEIR DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF AN INCH

=======+==========+===============+=======+========+============
Number | American,| |Washburn|Trenton|United | Old English
of Wire| or, Brown| Birm-| & Moen | Iron | States | From Brass
Gauge | & Sharpe |ingham|Manufac-|Company|Standard| Manufac-
| | | turing | | | turers’
| | | Company| | | Lists
-------+----------+------+--------+-------+--------+------------
000000 | | | .4600 | | .46857 |
00000 | | | .4300 | .4500 | .43750 |
0000 | .460000 | .454 | .3930 | .4000 | .40625 |
000 | .409640 | .425 | .3620 | .3600 | .37500 |
00 | .364800 | .380 | .3310 | .3300 | .34375 |
0 | .324950 | .340 | .3070 | .3050 | .31250 |
1 | .289300 | .300 | .2830 | .2850 | .28125 |
2 | .257630 | .284 | .2630 | .2650 | .26563 |
3 | .229420 | .259 | .2440 | .2450 | .25000 |
4 | .204310 | .238 | .2250 | .2250 | .23438 |
5 | .181940 | .220 | .2070 | .2050 | .21875 |
6 | .162020 | .203 | .1920 | .1900 | .20313 |
7 | .144280 | .180 | .1770 | .1750 | .18750 |
8 | .128490 | .165 | .1620 | .1600 | .17188 |
9 | .114430 | .148 | .1480 | .1450 | .15625 |
10 | .101890 | .134 | .1350 | .1300 | .14063 |
11 | .090742 | .120 | .1200 | .1175 | .12500 |
12 | .080808 | .109 | .1050 | .1050 | .10938 |
13 | .071961 | .095 | .0920 | .0925 | .09375 |
14 | .064084 | .083 | .0800 | .0800 | .07813 | .08300
15 | .057068 | .072 | .0720 | .0700 | .07031 | .07200
16 | .050820 | .065 | .0630 | .0610 | .06250 | .06500
17 | .045257 | .058 | .0540 | .0525 | .05625 | .05800
18 | .040303 | .049 | .0470 | .0450 | .05000 | .04900
19 | .035390 | .042 | .0410 | .0390 | .04375 | .04000
20 | .031961 | .035 | .0350 | .0340 | .03750 | .03500
21 | .028462 | .032 | .0320 | .0300 | .03438 | .03150
22 | .025347 | .028 | .0280 | .0270 | .03125 | .02950
23 | .022571 | .025 | .0250 | .0240 | .02813 | .02700
24 | .020100 | .022 | .0230 | .0215 | .02500 | .02500
25 | .017900 | .020 | .0200 | .0190 | .02188 | .02300
26 | .015940 | .018 | .0180 | .0180 | .01875 | .02150
27 | .014195 | .016 | .0170 | .0170 | .01719 | .01875
28 | .012641 | .014 | .0160 | .0160 | .01563 | .01650
29 | .011257 | .013 | .0150 | .0150 | .01406 | .01550
30 | .010025 | .012 | .0140 | .0140 | .01250 | .01375
31 | .008928 | .010 | .0135 | .0130 | .01094 | .01225
32 | .007950 | .009 | .0130 | .0120 | .01016 | .01125
33 | .007080 | .008 | .0110 | .0110 | .00938 | .01025
34 | .006304 | .007 | .0100 | .0100 | .00853 | .00950
35 | .005614 | .005 | .0095 | .0090 | .00781 | .00900
=======+==========+======+========+=======+========+============

TABLE II

SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON CUT NAILS

=5. Wire Nails.=—The term =wire nail= is applied to nails made from
drawn wire, or wire rods. Since their introduction some years ago, wire
nails have become decidedly popular, and in some localities are used in
preference to the old-style cut nails, owing to the fact that there are
a greater number to the pound, which makes them cheaper than cut nails
at the same price per keg. The size and number of common wire nails to
the pound are given in Table III. By comparing the columns in Tables II
and III giving the number of nails to the pound for both cut and wire
nails, it can be readily seen that the wire nails are greater in number
for a given weight than cut nails of the same size. For this reason,
the wire nails are used by contractors on cheap work.

Wire nails are more liable to rust than cut or wrought nails, and are
consequently not so durable in damp situations; they also have less
holding power and more must be used to obtain the same strength.

TABLE III

SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON WIRE NAILS

====+========+========+=============+==============
Size| Length | Gauge | Approximate | Advance Over
| Inches | Number | Number to | Base Price
| | | the Pound |per 100 Pounds
----+--------+--------+-------------+--------------
2d | 1 | 15 | 876 | $0.70
3d | 1¼ | 14 | 568 | .45
4d | 1½ | 12½ | 316 | .30
5d | 1¾ | 12½ | 271 | .30
6d | 2 | 11½ | 181 | .20
7d | 2¼ | 11½ | 161 | .20
8d | 2½ | 10¼ | 106 | .10
9d | 2¾ | 10¼ | 96 | .10
10d | 3 | 9 | 69 | .05
12d | 3¼ | 9 | 63 | .05
16d | 3½ | 8 | 49 | .05
20d | 4 | 6 | 31 | Base
30d | 4½ | 5 | 24 | Base
40d | 5 | 4 | 18 | Base
50d | 5½ | 3 | 14 | Base
60d | 6 | 2 | 11 | Base
====+========+========+=============+==============

Common wire nails in sizes from twentypenny to sixtypenny are sold at
base price, say $2 per keg, the smaller sizes costing an advance over
the base price. Thus, an eightpenny common nail would cost 10 cents
additional, or $2.10 per hundred pounds, while a twopenny nail would
cost $2.70 per hundred pounds, etc. The present advance above the base
price on 100-pound kegs for the several sizes is also given in this
table. All wire nails can be procured “barbed” at an additional advance
of 15 cents above base and extra prices.

The relative sizes of the common wire nail are best learned from
samples of the same, but Fig. 2, which shows these nails full size,
from sixtypenny to twopenny, clearly indicates their proportions.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

=6. Wire Nails for Special Purposes.=—Wire nails as well as wrought or
cut nails are made in a variety of forms especially suitable for the
specific purpose for which they are intended. The several kinds of wire
nails in common use are illustrated in Fig. 3.

A nail used about buildings for putting the trim, or finishing work,
together is illustrated at (_a_), and from its use is known as a
=finishing nail=. These nails are used almost exclusively for this
purpose and are very light. They have a small head, so that when they
are set into the wood with a nail set, a very small opening is left for
puttying.

Another nail having practically the same use as the one just described
is designated as a =casing nail=, and is shown at (_b_). This nail is a
trifle lighter in gauge than the finishing nail, and from the fact that
it is countersunk under the head, it draws better than the finishing
nail. The fivepenny and sixpenny sizes are used for putting on siding.

The =common wire brad=, shown at (_c_), is used for practically the
same purposes as the regular finishing nail, but it is from two to four
gauges heavier. This wire brad is useful when a heavy nail with a small
head is required, particularly in hardwood, where a light finishing
nail will not penetrate without bending.

The =flooring brad=, shown at (_d_), is a nail used almost exclusively
for flooring. This nail is made of heavier gauge wire than other
nails of this type, and drives easily, even in hard, maple floor.
The construction of the head of this type of nail allows for severe
“drawing” without splitting the tongue of the flooring boards.

The =fine-wire nail=, shown at (_e_), commonly called a =lath nail=, is
made in four sizes and is used for nailing lath to studding. Owing to
its smoothness, cleanliness, and easy-driving qualities, this type of
nail is extensively used.

A short, heavy nail, the whole length of which is barbed to increase
its holding qualities, is shown at (_f_). This nail is known as a
=barbed roofing nail=, and is generally used for nailing tin roofs and
ready, or prepared, roofing of every description. It is also used with
tin roofing caps.

At (_g_) is shown a =slating nail=. This type of nail is formed from
heavy gauge wire, and has a flat head that is large in proportion to
its length. This nail is used only for slating, but is not so durable
as the cut nail made for this purpose. Nails of this kind are made in
only five sizes.

A type of nail used for attaching wooden shingles, and known as the
=shingle nail=, is shown at (_h_). This nail is seldom carried in
stock, however, as threepenny and fourpenny common nails answer the
purpose. These shingle nails are clean and easily driven, but are not
so durable as cut nails.

A very heavy nail of the same character as the common wire nail, but
made much heavier, in order to increase the holding qualities and to
provide greater durability, is known as the =fence nail=. This nail is
made as shown at (_i_).

At (_j_) is shown a =clinch nail= that is manufactured from soft
wire or annealed hard wire. This nail answers the same purpose as
the old-style wrought, or clinch-cut, nail commonly used in the
construction of batten doors, etc. The metal being very soft at the
end of the nail, allows the point to be bent and driven back into the
wood to form the clinch. These nails do not differ from the common wire
nail, except in the form of the head and the material from which they
are made, as will be seen from Fig. 3 (_j_) and Fig. 2.

There is a form of headless wire nail, known as a =barbed dowel-pin=,
which is made as shown in Fig. 3 (_k_). This type of nail, or dowel,
is used for doweling through the mortises and tenons of sash, blinds,
and frames of every description. In the mill, it has displaced the
wooden dowel used in former times. The length of pin to be employed is
regulated by the thickness of the wood to be secured, as the pins are
used ¼ inch shorter than the thickness of the woodwork.

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

An exceptionally heavy nail, or spike, is made from heavy wire or round
bar. These spikes are used for heavy construction work, such as splined
flooring, for slow-burning mill construction, and for bridge flooring.
They are made with both chisel points, as shown in Fig. 4, and diamond
points, and in ordering them, the kind of point, as well as the style
of head wanted should be specified. Spikes of this kind are made in
all sizes from tenpenny, which is of No. 6 gauge and 3 inches long, to
spikes ⅜ inch in diameter and 12 inches long.

=7. Galvanized Nails and Spikes.=—Nails and spikes, either cut or
wire, that have been dipped into molten zinc and become coated with
this metal are termed =galvanized=. By this process they are rendered
practically rust-proof. Cut or wire galvanized nails can be obtained
in the same sizes and types as ordinary nails, and if dealers do
not regularly carry them in stock, they will as a rule have them
galvanized to order. In order to secure durability, it is advisable
to use galvanized nails in places that are exposed to dampness, as in
shingling, in slating, in fence building, or in structures erected near
the seashore, as it has been proved by numerous tests that ordinary
nails rust through in such places in a few years. The galvanized nails
cost from $1.50 to $3 more per keg than the plain cut or wire nails.

The cheaper grades of galvanized nails are frequently coated only with
lead, and will not withstand the government test; that is, dipping them
into vitriol. A simple way to test the coating of a galvanized nail is
to rub the nail on a piece of white paper. A lead-coated nail will mark
the paper the same as a lead pencil and should be rejected, as it is
only a sham and has no redeeming qualities.

WOOD SCREWS, EXPANSION AND SPECIAL BOLTS

=8. Wood Screws.=—The ordinary =wood screw=, which is one of the staple
articles of hardware, is very necessary in the application of all
builders’ hardware about the building. Except in some lines of cheap
or rough, unfinished goods, hardware manufacturers now pack with all
hardware, screws that match the finish of the goods. The various types
of screws now on the market are illustrated in Fig. 5, and the common
types, such as flat-, round-, oval-, and fillister-headed screws are
easily procured.

Iron screws are made with either flat, round, or oval heads and the
following finishes: Bright, blued, japanned, tinned, galvanized,
bronze-plated, brass-plated, coppered, silvered, and nickel-plated.
Brass and bronze metal screws can also be procured with flat, round, or
oval heads, in either natural color or, on special order, finished to
match the hardware. Special screws are also manufactured for various
purposes, which are sufficiently explained by the illustration, Fig. 5.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

Screws are always measured for length from the point to the top of the
head. The sizes in which screws can be obtained are given in Table IV.
The diameter of screws is always measured directly under the head, and
is always given in numbers of the screw makers’ gauge. The numbers
vary from 0 to 30, going consecutively without skip from 0 to 18
and from then on using only the even numbers. In Table IV are also
given the numbers of the screw makers’ gauge and their equivalents in
decimals of an inch.

TABLE IV

SIZE OF WOOD SCREWS

SCREW MAKERS’ GAUGE
--------+---------------
Number | Equivalent
of Screw| in Decimals
Gauge | of an Inch
--------+---------------
0 | .05784
1 | .07100
2 | .08416
3 | .09732
4 | .11048
5 | .12364
6 | .13680
7 | .14996
8 | .16312
9 | .17628
10 | .18944
11 | .20260
12 | .21576
13 | .22892
14 | .24208
15 | .25524
16 | .26840
17 | .28156
18 | .29472
20 | .32104
22 | .34736
24 | .37368
26 | .40000
28 | .42632
30 | .45264
========+===============

=9. Drive Screws.=—A screw known as the =drive screw= is used mostly
in the manufacture of various articles where cost is the controlling
factor. These screws, shown in Fig. 6, are made somewhat on the order
of the wood screw, but without the deep-cut thread and gimlet point.
Screws of this type are driven into the wood with a hammer and have
slotted heads so that they may be withdrawn by means of a screwdriver.
The thread is so constructed that the wood may be penetrated without
breaking down its fiber when the screws are driven, and is shaped so as
to engage with the wood while resisting a pulling stress. These screws
are made with flat, round, or oval heads, as illustrated respectively
at (_a_), (_b_), and (_c_), and may be had in sizes from ½ inch to 4
inches in length.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

=10. Expansion Bolts.=—The =expansion bolt= is a device that has proved
extremely valuable in the building trades, as it provides a means of
bolting to stone, brick, concrete, slate, or other materials of this
nature. Expansion bolts are used principally in places where it is
not desirable or practicable to drill through the material to which
the fastenings are to be made. This type of bolt has also a great
advantage over other fastenings in that it can be removed with as much
ease and facility as it is applied, and also without injury either to
the article fastened or the material to which it is fixed, the bolt
likewise sustaining no injury.

Many styles of expansion bolts are now manufactured under various
patents, and these may be procured in all sizes and made of iron,
steel, or brass.

In Fig. 7 are shown several makes of expansion bolts. The _McCabe
expansion bolt_, shown at (_a_), is constructed of a malleable,
cylindrical-shaped, slotted case, or shell, _a_, the aperture of which
reduces in size and engages with a bevel-shaped hexagon nut _b_. By
turning the bolt, the nut is drawn toward the head and thus expands the
outer case in its passage; this in turn binds against the sides of the
hole in the masonry into which the bolt is inserted. The shell, as the
outside case _a_ is called, can be procured in any length or diameter,
and can be used with any machine bolt having a standard thread. The
McCabe bolt is suitable for bolting any thickness of material, provided
the proper length of bolt is employed.

The _Brohard expansion bolt_ shown at (_b_), performs the same
functions as the bolt illustrated at (_a_). The case, or shell, _a_,
is composed of two or more parts riveted to a wrought circular plate,
near the head, as at _b_. These several parts are expanded by means of
the beveled nut, which approaches the head as the bolt is turned. The
principal feature of the Brohard expansion bolt is that the beveled nut
_c_ cannot be forced from the case on account of the lug _d_, which is
attached to the nut and travels in the slot _e_ when the bolt is turned.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

The _Steward and Romaine double-expansion bolt_ is shown at (_c_). The
shell of this bolt is composed of two semicylindrical parts, as at _a,
a_, that are somewhat longer in diameter than the wedge-shaped nut and
the sleeve at _b_ and _c_, respectively. Each half of the shell is
held in place by light rubber bands. The wedge-shaped parts are caused
to approach each other by the turning of the bolt, and thereby expand
the split case at both ends simultaneously. From the fact that this
bolt is expanded at both ends, it is called a =double-expansion bolt=,
although it may be made single-expansion by omitting the wedge-shaped
sleeve at the head.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

The _Star expansion bolt_, shown in Fig. 8 (_a_), performs exactly the
same duty as other expansion bolts, but its construction is radically
different. This bolt consists of only two parts, called _shields_.
Each shield is semicircular in form and interlocks at the joints.
The exterior of these shields has four rows of corrugated ridges, or
star-shaped projections, that prevent the shields from turning in the
hole. The interior of the shell is threaded and decreases in size
toward the farther end. Thus, by inserting a lag, or coach, screw of
any length, so as to engage with the thread, the shields are spread
apart at the farther end while the screw is entering the aperture.

The _Diamond expansion bolt_ shown at (_b_) is practically the same as
the one just described, as will be observed from the figure.

Expansion bolts are also made with all the parts entirely of brass or
bronze, with either plain, capped, or fancy heads, or nuts, and in any
finish desired.

=11. Screw Anchors.=—The device known as a _screw anchor_ can be used
in place of an expansion bolt for securing light materials. Several
kinds of screw anchors are in the market at present. The _star anchor_,
which is made in one piece of composition metal that is slotted about
seven-eighths of its length, may be obtained in various diameters
and lengths. The exterior has two star-like projections, to prevent
the anchor from turning, while the interior is constructed of ridges
projecting from the tube, with the hole reduced toward the slotted
end. This internal construction permits the star anchor to be used in
combination with trade wood or machine screws of any length. The screw
used engages with the ridges in the interior, cutting its own thread
and expanding the anchor in its passage. These composition anchors are
very cheap, the price ranging from 1 to 3 cents, according to the size.
They are made in different lengths, from ½ inch to 1½ inches, and for
Nos. 6, 10, 14, and 18 wood screws.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

=12. Special Bolts.=—In Fig. 9 is shown a =toggle bolt=. This device
is a recent production for fastening materials to surfaces having a
hollow interior that will not admit the use of expansion or tap bolts
because of its frail character, as, for instance, sheet metal, hollow
fireproofing, etc. The toggle bolt shown in the figure is constructed
with long, fine-pitch threads cut nearly to the head, so as to allow
for securing thin materials. The =T=-shaped head _a_ is constructed
either hollow, as shown in the figure, or of flat strip metal, and is
riveted loosely to the end of the bolt, allowing the head to pivot and
fold over the bolt, and thus permitting the head to pass through a
small opening. The head is then tipped into its proper position, when
the bolt is ready for securing in place the work to be fastened. The
construction of the bolt is shown in Fig. 9 (_a_), while the process of
affixing it is illustrated at (_b_) and (_c_). These toggle bolts are
generally made with ³/₁₆-, ¼-, and ⁵/₁₆-inch bolts, from 2½ to 6 inches
long, and of either iron, steel, or brass.

SASH WEIGHTS

=13. Cast-Iron Weights.=—The term =sash weight= is applied to a
counterweight used for balancing double-hung, or sliding, sash. These
weights are generally very rough, being made from either the poorest
iron or waste iron. The stock sizes are usually long and cylindrical
in form—from 1⅜ to 2¼ inches in diameter—have an eye cast in the upper
end, as shown in Fig. 10, and weigh from 2 to 30 pounds, the weight
determining the length of the sash weight. In Table V are given the
weight, diameter, and length of sash weights as they are generally
furnished to the trade, although it is almost impossible to give this
data with any degree of accuracy, as the different manufacturers vary
the diameters of the weights slightly, and this changes the length
measurement. Square weights or special weights can be easily procured
at small additional cost.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

=14. Lead Weights.=—The weight of lead is about 80 per cent. greater
than that of cast-iron; hence, =lead sash weights= must be resorted to
where the construction of the pockets is too narrow to permit the use
of iron weights, or where heavy plate glass is used. They are also used
in cases where the sash are very wide and low, as here a short weight
must be used in order to obtain the necessary travel for the sash.

Lead weights can be procured in either round or square shapes, and of
any diameter or measurement to suit existing conditions, but they are
generally made to special order. A wrought- or malleable-iron eye, or
fastening, for applying the cord or chain is usually inserted at the
top. The cost of lead weights, however, is generally five times as
great as that of iron weights.

=15. Sectional Sash Weights.=—There is a form of sash weight in the
market known as the =Walda sectional weight=, which is illustrated
in Fig. 11. This weight, as will be observed, is so arranged that
units or sections may be detached or added, as desired, to diminish
or to increase the weight. Such a weight can be nicely adjusted to
counterbalance any sash, and has the advantage over the cast-iron
weight in that each part is interchangeable and no mistake can be made
in ordering, as the necessary weight for any sash can be made up on the
site.

TABLE V

WEIGHT, DIAMETER, AND LENGTH OF SASH WEIGHTS

========+==========+========
Weight | Diameter | Length
Pounds | Inches | Inches
--------+----------+--------
3 | 1⅜ | 8½
3½ | 1⅜ | 9¾
4 | 1⅜ | 11
4½ | 1⅜ | 12¼
5 | 1½ | 12
5½ | 1½ | 12½
6 | 1½ | 14
6½ | 1½ | 15
7 | 1½ | 16
7½ | 1½ | 17
8 | 1½ | 18
8½ | 1⅝ | 16½
9 | 1⅝ | 17½
9½ | 1⅝ | 18½
10 | 1⅝ | 19½
10½ | 1⅝ | 20½
11 | 1⅝ | 21½
11½ | 1¾ | 19
12 | 1¾ | 20
13 | 1¾ | 21½
14 | 2 | 18
15 | 2 | 19
16 | 2 | 20¼
17 | 2 | 21½
18 | 2 | 22½
19 | 2 | 23½
20 | 2 | 24½
21 | 2⅛ | 25
22 | 2¼ | 23
23 | 2¼ | 24
24 | 2¼ | 25
25 | 2¼ | 25½
26 | 2¼ | 26
27 | 2¼ | 27
28 | 2¼ | 28
29 | 2¼ | 28½
========+==========+========

FINISHING HARDWARE

METALS AND THEIR MANIPULATION

=16. Historical.=—From the days of Tubal-Cain, “an instructor of every
artificer in brass and iron,” to the present time, no element in the
world’s composition has rendered greater service in advancing man’s
development than has the uninviting metal known as _iron_.

Recent discoveries show the very ancient existence of iron in Assyria,
and also in Egypt under the Pharaohs. It was found in considerable
quantities in Syria, in Canaanite times, and many tools and implements
of warfare were made from it. The Chalybes, located near the Black Sea,
were in Biblical times considered famous workers in “northern iron,”
while Damascus steel, for ages, has been justly celebrated.

_Copper_ was well known to the Israelites and Egyptians before the
Exodus, and for many years previous to that event the Egyptians
obtained it from Arabia. It was also a native product of Palestine, and
was very largely exported from Cyprus, whence its name.

_Tin_ was early known in the Orient, being one of the imports of Egypt
from Spain, through the Phoenician merchants, who also obtained it from
Britain. It was one of the principal commodities in the marts of Tyre,
and was used as an alloy with other metals.

_Gold_ and _silver_, the precious metals, are mentioned in the
earliest times and were highly esteemed; they were utilized in the
manufacture of articles for domestic use, for personal adornment, and
for ceremonial accessories. These metals were obtained by the Hebrews
from Arabia, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Spain. Gold was used as a medium of
exchange, like money, as early as the time of Abraham, but was then
weighed, not counted. Silver was profusely used at that time in the
East, and seems to have been very abundant in the time of Solomon. An
alloy of gold and silver, called _electrum_, was also used.

_Zinc_ was discovered in 1520 by Paracelsus, an alchemist and
astrologer of Europe, and was immediately adopted as a valuable alloy.

_Bronze_, a composition of copper and tin, seems to have been much used
in Europe before the adoption of iron for the same purposes, as Roman
remains testify; this was probably due to its greater ease in working.

_Brass_, a composition of copper and zinc, soon became popular, owing
to its being more easily worked than bronze.

_Burnished brass_ is mentioned in Ezekiel, but is considered to have
been an alloy of copper, there being a white metal, greatly used for
ornaments in the East, called _white copper_.

Locks and contrivances to secure protection and privacy were originally
made of wood, and a wooden lock (the oldest yet discovered) was
actually found in the ruins of Nineveh. This lock appears to have been
used on a gate of an apartment in one of the palaces of Khorsabad. The
ancient Egyptians constructed locks and keys from brass and iron, thus
showing their creative mechanical skill, while the ornaments discovered
in the royal tombs display the high order of their art.

The Greeks and Romans were skilled workers in the metals, and many
beautiful examples remain to attest their ability and ingenuity.

During the dark ages, following the conflict waged between the
barbarians of Northern Europe and the Romans, and resulting in the
fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the art of working the
metals nearly disappeared. Not until the Revival of Learning in the
13th century did the art again receive the attention to which it was
entitled. As late as the reign of Edward III, of England, in the 14th
century, the iron pots and pans of the royal kitchen were listed among
the “jewels of His Majesty.” During the 15th and 16th centuries, great
progress was made among all civilized nations by skilled artificers.
Much of their work is still extant, and their “cunning of hand” and
“keenness of intellect,” as displayed in their products, serve, like
torches, to light the way to higher endeavor. From that time to the
present, great progress has been made. During the latter half of the
17th, the 18th, and the beginning of the 19th centuries, especially,
art work received a great impetus, and much of the present-day
adaptations are modeled from the schools of ornament then produced.

=17. Metals Used in Hardware Manufacture.=—The metals chiefly used
in manufacturing the products of the smiths’ art are iron and steel
and the copper alloys known as brass and bronze. Iron remains as the
chief material of construction for all the cheaper grades of hardware,
while brass and bronze are more generally used for “destructible,” or
wearing, parts and the finer and more elaborate decorative work. These
alloys also adapt themselves admirably to the great variety of finishes
that are now in vogue. Iron is also used considerably for elaborate
decorations in wrought and cast designs, and is very desirable in the
“rustless-iron” finish, technically known as “Bower-Barff,” which
derives its name from its two inventors.

White metal has been recently introduced, but will probably not be so
universally adopted as brass or bronze, owing to the great number and
variety of items used in hardware fittings, which would necessitate
stores carrying a full line of white-metal goods. At present, white
metal is used principally for hospital buildings and bathrooms.

=18. Commercial and Stock Designs.=—In recent years, manufacturers
have made rapid strides in producing beautiful and elaborate trim in
the several schools of ornament, and the most exacting critic can
now procure artistic designs. The finishes are made to harmonize or
contrast with any color treatment.

The principal hardware manufacturers can provide from stock, locks,
hinges, and escutcheons finished in any manner and designed in any of
the following schools of architectural ornament. They will also provide
hardware in special designs from sketches furnished by the architect,
including armorial or emblematic designs, if required. These several
schools of ornament are here arranged in alphabetical order.

Byzantine Gothic, French
Colonial Gothic, German
Elizabethan Gothic, Italian
Empire Greek
English Renaissance Henry II
Flemish Indian
Francis I Italian Renaissance
French Renaissance Japanese
German Renaissance L’Art Nouveau
Gothic, English

=19. Finishes.=—The basic metals upon which are applied the variety
of finishes now obtainable, are iron, steel, brass, bronze, and white
metal, of which the three latter, even in their highly polished natural
state, are the most durable. These metals will not rust or corrode
when exposed as will iron or steel, and when tarnished can be readily
cleaned and polished.

Nearly all the fancy finishes are obtained by electroplating and acid
treatment on the natural metals, the finish being then lacquered to
preserve it. Some of these finishes are very attractive and desirable,
but where exposed to constant usage, have not the durability of the
natural metals, as they cannot be polished or cleaned without the
finish being injured or destroyed.

Many architects or owners purposely select applied finishes with the
object in view that they will need little attention. When selections
are being made for exterior purposes or where there is likely to
be excessive handling, it is best to select the darker shades with
sanded surfaces. For interior purposes, the more delicate finishes are
desirable for the decorative effect; they also wear reasonably well.

The variety of colors and shades of finishes is exceedingly large, and
the choice of color, like that of texture, depends on the character of
the design and on the personal taste of the one making the selection.

The standard finishes that can be had are numerous. Many of them may
be obtained in various shades of oxidation and in from one to four
different textures of surface. The most popular finishes are as follows:

Pompeian bronze Copper
Sage-green bronze Nickel
Royal copper bronze Silver
Ormolu metal Gold
Boston finish Bower-Barff
Enameled White enamel
Japanned Gun-metal brown
White metal Verde antique
Brass Statuary bronze
Bronze Olive bronze

HINGES, HINGE BUTTS, AND SPECIAL HINGES

=20. Strap Hinges.=—The common wrought hinges used to apply on the
surface, for hanging doors, etc., and generally used in connection
with rough work, such as bins, sheds, barns, etc., where a strong,
serviceable hinge that may be easily applied is required, are known
as =strap hinges=. They are constructed of wrought metal of various
weights, according to the size of the hinge, and are stamped or cut
from sheet metal, with _knuckles_, or sockets for the pins, formed on
the strap; the pins passing through the knuckles are well riveted.
There are two kinds of strap hinges; namely, _light-strap_ and
_heavy-strap hinges_.

The =light-strap hinge=, which is shown in Fig. 12 (_a_), is so termed
because of its light construction and narrow joint. This hinge is made
in inch sizes, varying from 3 to 16 inches in length. By inch size is
meant the longest dimension when the hinge is closed; thus, a 6-inch
strap hinge is 12 inches long from end to end when opened. They are
listed and sold by the pair.

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

The =heavy-strap hinge=, which is shown at (_b_), is similar to the
light hinge, but is made from heavier metal and has large dimensions
at the joints, or knuckles. This type of hinge is used where a strong,
substantial hinge is required. The heavy-strap hinge is made in inch
sizes, from 4 to 16 inches in length. The 4- and 5-inch sizes are
listed and sold by the pair, the 6-inch and larger sizes being listed
and sold by the pound; the larger the hinge the lower the price per
pound.

As shown at (_c_), the heavy-strap hinges are also made with corrugated
knuckles, which give additional strength where the construction is
weakest. These are termed =corrugated-strap hinges=.

All of the hinges described are also made in plain steel, japanned or
galvanized, and may have brass pins or rivets.

=21. T Hinges.=—As will be seen from Fig. 13, =T hinges= are so called
to distinguish them from the strap hinge, as well as because of their
construction, which is in the form of the letter =T=. The =T= hinge
is used for practically the same purpose as the strap hinge, but is
superior to it in strength, from the fact that its knuckle is wider
than that of the strap hinge. =T= hinges are made in light, heavy, and
extra-heavy grades, the former and latter types being shown in Fig. 13
(_a_) and (_b_). In arranging the sizes of =T= hinges, the measurements
are given for the length of the strap only; the leaf of the hinge
forming the =T= with the strap is not considered. Thus, a 6-inch =T=
hinge measures 6 inches from the pin to the end of the strap leaf. =T=
hinges may also be obtained in stamped metal, with corrugations, as
shown at (_c_). These hinges can be had in all finishes. The light and
heavy grades, as well as the 4- and 5-inch extra-heavy grades, are sold
by the pair, while the larger sizes of extra heavy are sold by weight.

[Illustration: FIG. 13]

=22. Hinge Butts.=—In the selection of hardware for building purposes,
no other article deserves more consideration, and probably receives
less, than the =hinge butt=. This type of hinge is used for the purpose
of hanging all of the exterior and interior doors of buildings, and is
usually secured to the edge of the door and to the hanging stile of
the frame with screws, the greater part of the appliance being thus
unobtrusive and partly hidden from view. The hinge butt supports the
entire weight of the door, and, ordinarily, is constantly in use, so
that it is subjected to excessive strain and considerable wear. It is
evident, therefore, that great care should be exercised in selecting
hinge butts, so that proper sizes and qualities suitable for the
purpose intended may be obtained.

[Illustration: FIG. 14]

=23. Cast-Iron Hinge Butts.=—Hinge butts made of cast-iron are used
extensively in the cheaper class of buildings built for speculative
purposes, in which cost is usually the controlling factor. An
ornamental type of the =cast-iron hinge butt= is shown in Fig. 14.
Butts of this type are not extensively used at present, but may be
obtained in various finishes to imitate bronze or brass, and may
likewise be obtained without ornamentation. As the genuine Bower-Barff
finishes are produced with equal facility on iron or steel, a large
number of the better grade of cast butts are finished in this manner.

While the cast-iron hinge butt is not so durable as the steel butt,
being more easily broken when subjected to excessive stresses, it
wears somewhat better at the joints, or knuckles, than the ordinary
steel butt. Therefore, the extra-heavy types of cast-iron are becoming
more popular for entrance doors, etc., where a good wearing butt is
required, and where economy is the essential feature. The heavier
grades of cast-iron butts can be procured with steel bushings inserted
into the joints.

[Illustration: FIG. 15]

[Illustration: FIG. 16]

[Illustration: FIG. 17]

=24. Steel Hinge Butts.=—In recent years, the =steel hinge butt=, which
is shown in Fig. 15, has been substituted for the cheaper cast-iron
butts. The better grades are made with ball tips, as indicated in the
figure, and these are now almost universally used for medium-class work
and for the better class of interior work. Owing to the fact that they
are made up with smooth surfaces, the steel hinge butts are adapted
to the various buildings and finishings without grinding or buffing.
These butts are stamped and formed by machinery, so that their cost
is reduced to a minimum; they can be sold for less than cast-iron
butts, and also possess the advantage over the latter in that they
are practically unbreakable. The ordinary grades are not suitable for
large and heavy entrance doors that are constantly in use, for they are
made of soft steel and wear readily at the joints. Thus, in time, they
will allow the door to sag and thereby necessitate readjustment, or the
planing of the door at the sill. For such class of work, steel hinge
butts should be used that are provided with ball bearings, as shown
in Fig. 16, or with hardened-steel washers inserted at the joints, as
shown in Fig. 17.

These steel butts are also made in smaller sizes, and for bookcases,
cupboard doors, and light work of this kind in ordinary building
operations, they are used almost exclusively, having practically forced
the small cast butts for this class of work out of the market.

[Illustration: FIG. 18]

=25. Cast-Bronze and Brass Butts.=—All types of =brass= and =bronze
butts= are made in several grades and qualities, and it is difficult
to determine the grade after they have been placed in position. It is
therefore advisable for the architect or building superintendent to
make a careful inspection of this hardware, to determine whether it is
furnished according to specification. Brass and bronze butts are made
in light, or commercial, heavy, and extra-heavy grades, and in all
cases should be steel-bushed, self-lubricating, and provided with five
knuckles. The high-grade butts are now manufactured with ball bearings
at the wearing joints. The construction of a solid bronze, ball-bearing
hinge butt is shown in Fig. 18. In this figure, the hardened-steel
balls are shown at _a_, and the cones, which are also of hardened
steel, at _b_. Bronze hinges constructed in this manner can be obtained
at a slight additional cost above the ordinary steel-bushed hinge.

Where hinge butts are exposed to the weather, as when used for exterior
doors, bronze or brass butts should always be employed; and for
extra-heavy doors that are in constant use, only the extra-heavy types
should be used if permanency and durability are desired. There are a
number of cheap grades of bronze, steel-bushed hinges on the market
that are made of wrought or sheet metal. This kind of hinge has no
merit, and should not be used on work of any quality.

=26. Sizes of Hinge Butts.=—The standard hinge butts are always square,
but they may be procured in irregular sizes, at additional cost. In
indicating the size of irregular hinge butts—that is, the butts that
are not square, and that are consequently not standard—two dimensions
must always be given. The first dimension stated should indicate the
height of the butt, and the second the width of the butt when it is
open. Thus, a 6" × 5" butt is 6 inches high and 5 inches wide when
opened. This rule for indicating the size of hinge butts is easy to
remember, from the fact that it is the reverse of that ordinarily
employed by builders when indicating the sizes of doors and windows,
for here it is customary to give the horizontal dimension first and the
height of the opening last.

[Illustration: FIG. 19]

=27. Single-Acting Hinges, or Butts.=—There is a large butt, or hinge,
in the market that has a coil spring either between the knuckles, or
enclosed between the leaves. This device is known as the =single-acting
hinge=, and is illustrated in Fig. 19. At (_a_) is shown the _Bommer
single-acting hinge_, which has a spiral spring enclosed within the
casing formed by one of the knuckles. The tension on this spring can
be increased by operating the collar at _a_ with a pin, or bar. At
(_b_) is shown a single-acting spring hinge known as the _Chicago
single-acting spring butt_. This hinge butt has a spiral spring that
is encased between two leaves. In operating, this spring always tends
to throw the door back to its closed position. These two kinds of
single-acting hinges are used more than any other hinge of the same
nature now in the market, but for doors of large size the liquid door
check is preferred, although it is more costly. Single-acting hinge
butts are used principally for hanging water-closet slat doors; and
they are also used for light doors that do not reach the full height
of the opening, and which have no jambs. The Bommer hinge, as shown in
Fig. 19 (_a_), has an advantage on account of the simple means provided
for adjusting the tension of the coil, or spring, by which the momentum
of the door in swinging to and fro can be reduced to a minimum, thus
shutting the door with little noise as it strikes the stop.

[Illustration: FIG. 20]

Two other types of the Bommer single-acting spring hinge are shown in
Fig. 20. At (_a_) are shown two types of single-acting, surface, spring
hinges that are used for lavatory doors, while at (_b_) is shown a
similar single-acting spring hinge arranged for securing to a marble or
slate stile or partition. These hinges are commonly supplied in highly
polished nickel plate, brass, or bronze. The clamp hinge illustrated at
(_b_) is made to secure to slabs of marble or slate from 1 to 2 inches
in thickness, advancing by quarter inches. This type of hinge is also
adjustable ⅛ inch over and under the stated sizes.

[Illustration: FIG. 21]

The Bommer yoke-spring hinge is also made as illustrated in Fig. 21.
This yoke hinge consists of two single-acting hinges hung right and
left of the same partition on one box flange, the yoke or box flange
being constructed as shown at _a_. As the box flange of this spring is
not adjustable, the exact thickness of the marble, or partition, and
the door must always be stated in ordering these hinges.

The single-acting spring hinges with clamps, as just described, are
fastened to the marble partitions separating water-closet compartments
by means of bolts having capnuts, as shown at _b_, Fig. 21, and are
thus secured firmly in position. Special single-acting hinges may be
obtained with a reverse spring that can be regulated to hold the door
partly open, instead of in a closed position.

=28. Double-Acting Hinges.=—The =double-acting hinge= is similar in
construction to a single-acting hinge, except that it is arranged so
that the door can swing both ways. These hinges are combined in one
piece of hardware, as illustrated in Fig. 22. Such hinges are much
heavier and more costly than the single-acting hinge, and they are
generally used for entrance doors of hotels and public buildings,
and for doors between kitchen and pantry or dining room in private
residences, where a door that will swing both ways and return to a
closed position is desirable. The double-acting hinge is usually
subjected to excessive wear and strain. Care should therefore be
exercised in selecting this type of hinge; also, in determining the
size, it is better to have a hinge slightly larger than required rather
than one that is too small. While double-acting spring hinges made
of cast-iron may be obtained, those of the latest manufacture are of
steel. They may also be procured in brass or bronze, and of any desired
finish to match the fixtures and other hardware.

[Illustration: FIG. 22]

[Illustration: FIG. 23]

In Fig. 23 is shown another type of double-acting spring hinge that is
not so compact as those illustrated in Fig. 22. This hinge, as shown,
is operated by a coil spring that fits into a rabbet formed in the two
leaves of the spring; thus, the coil is invisible when the door is
closed, or in its normal position. This hinge obtains a good purchase
on the door and jamb.

=29. Floor Hinges.=—A device is made for hanging single- and
double-acting doors by means of pivots, or trunnions, placed at the top
or the bottom. The top pivot is usually inactive; that is, it has no
spring or other device, and is simply a trunnion, or pivot, with the
necessary plate to engage it fastened to the edge of the door trim. The
bottom piece of hardware, on the other hand, is arranged with a pivot
and a coil spring, and has various mechanisms for operating the door
positively and silently.

In Fig. 24 is illustrated a =single-acting, checking-spring hinge=.
This spring hinge is known as the _Bardsley_, and its mechanism, which
is enclosed in a cast-iron box, is shown at (_a_). This box, or case,
is set into the floor, the top plate being made flush with the top of
the floor, as shown at (_b_). The operating bar, or pivot, of the hinge
has a square end, as shown at _a_, that engages with the plate secured
to the bottom edge of the door, and is connected to the mechanism by
means of a crank and connecting link, as at _b_. After being set into
the floor, the cast-iron box, or case, containing the spring, piston
cylinder, etc. is filled with oil or other non-freezing liquid, and
sealed by means of the top plate _c_. The action of the door in opening
compresses the spring and operates the piston in the cylinder. The
spring operating to close the door also moves the piston and forces the
oil in the cylinder out through a by-pass, the flow being regulated
by the adjusting screws _d_, which are on a level with the top plate.
In this manner, the door is closed surely but gently, from which the
hinge derives its name of checking-spring hinge. Hinges of this type
can be used without any modification of the door or frame, but are
not extensively used on account of their high price and the cost of
application.

[Illustration: FIG. 24]

For pivoting the door at the top, there is provided a top pivot and
plate, as illustrated at (_c_). This pivot is applied to the edge of
the door stile. Both the top pivot and bottom hinge plates on the door
are offset.

[Illustration: FIG. 25]

Double-acting floor hinges are rapidly displacing double-acting
spring hinges. This is due to the fact that when the former hinges
are employed the door is pivoted at the top and bottom and the weight
of the door is not carried by the coils of the spring, as in the
double-acting spring hinge. The floor type of double-acting hinge
carries the weight of the door on a ball bearing in the box, or case,
let into the floor, as shown at _a_, Fig. 25, the coil performing only
the function of closing the door. The hinge illustrated is not only a
double-acting hinge, but is also a checking hinge, and for this reason
is known as a =double-acting, checking-spring hinge=. In operating,
this spring hinge not only closes the door, but prevents it, when
closing, from oscillating after the door has reached its neutral, or
closed, position.

There are numerous double-acting floor hinges in the market that are
not of the checking type. Some of these are the _Atlas_ and _Simplex_,
made by Bardsley, the _Bommer_, made by Bommer Brothers, together with
the _Chicago_, _New Idea_, _Matchless_, _Chief_, and _Columbia_, made
by various manufacturers. All of these hinges embody practically the
same principle, but differ somewhat in mechanism.

=30. Outside Blind and Shutter Hinges.=—The outside shutter, or blind,
is still much used in the construction of dwelling houses, and a great
variety of hardware is made to use in conjunction with hanging these
devices. Only the most common of the many available types of this kind
of hardware, however, will be treated here.

The hinge illustrated in Fig. 26 may be classed among the oldest types
of shutter hinge. This hinge is made of cast-iron and is formed with
a gravity-locking device intended to hold the shutter in position
when opened against the building. It is known as the _Lull and Porter
hinge_, and is made in various sizes that are designed to throw the
shutter from 1½ to 6½ inches away from the casing, so as to clear all
obstructions consequent to the various constructions. A sill catch must
be used in conjunction with this hinge, in order to hold the shutter in
place when closed and to prevent it from blowing open.

[Illustration: FIG. 26]

[Illustration: FIG. 27]

A similar type of hinge, known as the _Clark hinge_, is illustrated in
Fig. 27. This hinge is made of cast-iron, and in three sizes, which are
arranged to throw the blind 1¼, 3¼, or 4¼ inches from the casing. The
hinge with the largest throw is used on brick buildings. With this
hinge, as with the one just described, a sill catch must be used to
keep the shutter closed.

[Illustration: FIG. 28]

In specifying cast-iron hinges of the types just considered, it is well
to mention that they shall be extra heavy, from the fact that there are
so many in the market of such light construction as to be practically
worthless.

A type of the =gravity-locking hinge=, which is better than the
cast-iron hinge, is illustrated in Fig. 28. This hinge is made entirely
of steel, and is known as the _Stanley gravity blind hinge_. There is
only one size of this hinge manufactured, and it is used for frame
buildings. All of the parts of this hinge are interchangeable and
reversible, so that it may be used for either right- or left-hand
blinds.

There is a wrought-steel hinge, known as the _Stanley blind hinge_,
which has not the gravity-locking device, but which obtains a greater
purchase on the shutter. This hinge is illustrated in Fig. 29; the
hinge shown at (_a_) is for frame buildings, while that shown at (_b_)
is arranged for brick walls.

[Illustration: FIG. 29]

Another type of hinge made entirely of wrought steel, and known as the
_New York blind hinge_, is shown in Fig. 30. This type of hinge has a
long strap that extends on the top and the bottom rail of the shutter
and thus tends to prevent the blind from drooping. This strap also
strengthens the shutter by relieving the mortise and tenon of the rail
and stile from the strain. The New York blind hinges are made in two
styles. The hinge shown at (_a_) is intended for frame buildings, while
that at (_b_) is made with an offset to throw the shutter clear of a
brick jamb. These hinges are ordinarily used with blind adjusters, or
fasteners, and for very high blinds, a center, or auxiliary, hinge is
used.

[Illustration: FIG. 30]

[Illustration: FIG. 31]

There is another type of strap hinge similar to those just described,
the butt of which consists of a pin and staple, as shown in Fig. 31.
This staple is secured by driving it into wooden blocking in the brick
joints. Hinges of this type are used extensively in localities where
brick buildings are numerous.

=31. Inside Blind, or Shutter, Hinges.=—The use of inside blinds, or
shutters, is general with the better class of domestic buildings, and
for hanging these shutters, three kinds of hinges are used, depending
on the number of folds in the shutter and the manner in which they
fold back on each other. Usually, the _butt_ and the _back flap_, as
shown in Fig. 32 (_a_) and (_b_), are used. Where the shutter has three
folds, however, a _knuckle butt_, as shown at (_c_), is employed. The
purpose of the knuckle butt is to cause the folds to take such relative
positions as will enable them, when open, to close properly into a
pocket, or recess, formed in the window frame.

[Illustration: FIG. 32]

[Illustration: FIG. 33]

[Illustration: FIG. 34]

[Illustration: FIG. 35]

=32. Invisible Butts, or Hinges.=—A =secret=, or =invisible, hinge=,
known as the _Soss hinge_, has recently been placed on the market.
This hinge, which is illustrated in Fig. 33 (_a_), consists of a
semicircular plate, which is attached rigidly to the door section,
and a movable semicircular plate on the jamb leaf, which telescopes
the section on the door in closing. These hinges are invisible when
the door is closed. The disadvantage in the use of these hinges is
due to the fact that they have only one wearing joint; they are also
somewhat complicated and expensive. As shown in Fig. 33 (_b_), they
have no throw, or offset, and consequently the door does not clear the
baseboard, or trim, in opening. The larger size of hinge has a throw
of 1 inch, which is not ordinarily sufficient for doors. These hinges,
however, have their use for such mill work as seats, secret jambs,
drop, or folding, leaves, etc., and for this class of work are the best
in the market.

=33. Strap and Corner Hinge Plates.=—Medieval hardware was the product
of the blacksmith and the whitesmith, the former working with forge
and hammer, and the latter with chisel and file, the material being
wrought iron. The butt hinge was unknown, while the strap, or surface,
hinge was in universal use; and, as this was wholly in sight, it
naturally became the subject of decoration, chiefly in outline, but
occasionally in surface ornament also. With the adoption of the butt
hinge for general use, the opportunity of utilizing the hinge to
decorate the surface of the door disappeared, but with the modern
revival of decorative art the use of constructive metal work as a
feature of surface decoration for important doors was restored. This
was accomplished by combining with the modern butt a surface plate that
represents the strap hinge. Obviously, the width of the butt of a hinge
plate should correspond with the height of the butt hinge with which
it is to be used, and both should be of the same metal and finish. The
other dimensions are governed by the size of the door and by taste,
as is true also in the case of corner plates. A varied and artistic
selection of typical strap hinges and corner plates is given in the
groups of designs shown in Figs. 34 and 35.

LOCKS AND THEIR APPURTENANCES

=34. Locks in General.=—In no other line of hardware is there such a
variety of grades and types as there is in door locks. In general,
locks may be designated as _surface_ and _mortise locks_, the former
being secured to the surface of the door and entirely exposed to
view, while the latter are let into a mortise cut in the edge of the
stile. Besides these two general kinds of locks, there are several
special locks, which will be fully explained. As to quality, locks may
be classified in three grades; namely, _common_, _medium_, and _high
grade_.

[Illustration: FIG. 36]

[Illustration: FIG. 37]

=35. Common-Grade Rim and Mortise Locks.= The =rim lock=, as
illustrated in Fig. 36, is generally used for buildings of the
cheapest class, such as tenements and small houses. As cheapness is
the controlling factor in such goods, especially the goods made for
speculative building purposes, the quality diminishes with the price.
For cheap work, rim locks are used on account of their low cost and
because they are easily applied. They also require no trim, such as
escutcheon plates, etc., and are complete when the spindle and the knob
are furnished with them. Rim locks are made in various sizes and either
square or rectangular in shape, the long dimension being placed either
horizontal or upright. They may also be obtained with either iron or
brass bolts, and are furnished with iron, tinned, or nickel-plated
keys. The cheapest grades of rim locks are made with two bolts and one
tumbler, while the better grades have an additional stop and a slide
bolt with three tumblers.

Rim locks are generally constructed of cast-iron, and in selecting
them, a careful inspection should be made of the internal mechanism,
choosing only those rim locks in which the bolts and the tumblers are
constructed of steel or brass. Rim locks, however, are also made of all
steel, and these are coming into general use. They present a somewhat
better appearance than cast-iron locks, as may be seen from Fig. 37.

The cast-iron rim lock may also be obtained with an ornamental case.
These cast-iron cases, as a rule, are finished in imitation of bronze.
Such rim locks, however, are not in general use on account of their
somewhat higher cost, and from the fact that their appearance is not
greatly improved by the ornamentation.

[Illustration: FIG. 38]

=Cheap mortise locks=, or =sets=, are also largely used for the more
common grades of work. They are sold in sets, that is, with escutcheon
plates, etc. of steel or cast-iron, both in plain and ornamental
designs, as illustrated in Fig. 38. The cheapest lock sets are fitted
with pottery knobs, and the better grade, with metal knobs. All of
these locks described are of poor construction, as quality is a
secondary consideration.

[Illustration: FIG. 39]

=36. Medium-Grade Mortise Locks.=—The locks grouped under the term
“medium-grade” hardware have been greatly improved in recent years and
are adapted to a large range of uses, but they are especially made for
residence work. In dwellings of the better class, the best types of rim
locks are used for doors in attics and basements, and for closet doors,
but for all other doors, the =medium-grade mortise locks= are used.
These locks are provided with cast- or wrought-bronze lock fronts, are
made with from one to three lever tumblers, and have drop-forge steel
cases. The locks are constructed with easy springs, which allow the
latch bolt to retreat within the case on one light spring when the
door is closed, and when the knob is turned, to operate the latch,
both springs act jointly in order to overcome the friction of the knob
and to throw the bolt back to central position. The mechanism of an
easy-spring, mortise knob lock is illustrated in Fig. 39.

[Illustration: FIG. 40]

In the group of locks embodying those of medium quality are included
the three-bolt locks used for chamber and exterior doors, locks for
communicating doors between chambers, and twin, or two-bolt, locks
for twin bathroom or toilet-room doors, these being respectively
illustrated in Fig. 40 (_a_), (_b_), and (_c_). All of these locks
should be used with wrought- or cast-bronze trim, either plain or
in design, and in finishes to suit. Locks for exterior doors, where
security is important, should be selected with this object in view, and
three-tumbler, or three-bolt, locks should be used.

=37. High-Grade Locks.=—There are a number of high-grade door locks and
latches in the market for the equipment of first-class buildings, and
frequently these locks are especially constructed to meet particular
requirements. Among such locks are included, besides high-grade,
three-tumbler locks, those that embody the cylinder principle and those
that are equipped as master-key locks.

[Illustration: FIG. 41]

The =unit-cylinder lock=, illustrated in Fig. 41, is made by P. & F.
Corbin. This hardware specialty is a new departure in lock making. The
mechanism of the lock is contracted into the smallest possible space,
occupying only about 1½ in. × 3¼ in. Instead of being mortised into the
stile of the door, as is usual with the mortise lock, a piece is cut
entirely from the stile, as illustrated in Fig. 42. In order to prevent
this operation from weakening the stile of the door, the unit-cylinder
lock is provided with heavy escutcheon plates that are strongly ribbed
on the back, so that when these plates are secured to the stile at the
top and bottom, they supply the rigidity necessary to make up for the
notching. As the name implies, these locks are made in a unit, and the
keyhole to the cylinder lock is located in the knob. The unit-cylinder
lock is made in two styles—with dead-locking latch bolt and with
additional dead bolt.

[Illustration: FIG. 42]

=38. High-Grade Interior Door Locks.=—In Fig. 43 is shown a type of
high-grade, =mortise-locking latch= for interior doors. These locks
are of the heaviest construction, and are fitted with either brass
or bronze fronts. The bolts are operated with two or more tumblers
constructed on an improved pattern, and are of fine workmanship. The
trim for a lock of this character should be of the very best grade,
with knobs of the screwless-spindle type, which will be explained later.

The escutcheons should be of the high-collar or the bracket-bearing
type, and should conform to the character of the locks in quality
and finish. On the most important work, it is always expedient and
usually feasible to obtain expert advice from manufacturers or from
dealers representing the manufacturer, whose intimate knowledge of
the product will be of great assistance to the architect or owner in
making suitable selections. The use of high-grade hardware requires
a considerable expenditure, and the necessity for expert advice
consequently becomes more imperative if the best results are to be
obtained.

[Illustration: FIG. 43]

=39. Master-Key Locks.=—The type of lock known as the =master-key
lock= is generally used for public or office buildings, hotels, and
occasionally in the better class of residence work. These locks can
be grouped into two classes; namely, the _Yale_, or _cylinder_, and
the _lever-tumbler types_, the class first mentioned being the most
desirable.

In the lever-tumbler type, illustrated in Fig. 39, the tumblers,
or wards, are so arranged that each lock can be operated only by
its particular key, the keys for all rooms being different and
non-changeable; all of the locks, however, can be operated by a key
made for the purpose, termed a =master key=. Each lock of this type has
two sets of tumblers; one set is operated by its individual key, and
the other, being uniform in all locks of the series, is acted on by
the master key. Such locks may be obtained either in the cheaper kind,
with one tumbler and twelve changes, or in the most intricate styles
of hotel locks, with five tumblers and 48,000 changes in one set, and
all operated by one _master key_. The cylinder lock of this type is
illustrated in Fig. 44, which shows a Yale & Towne, mortise, front-door
lock.

[Illustration: FIG. 44]

=40. Details of the Yale Type of Master-Key Locks.= The =Yale= type
of cylinder lock, which is illustrated in Fig. 45 (_a_) and (_b_), is
much preferred, on account of the great security it gives and the small
key required by it. This lock is made in three systems; namely, the
_regular_, the _concentric_, and the _paracentric_, or _duplex_.

In the =regular system=, one regular cylinder is controlled by the
change and master keys, the pin tumblers being cut in two places,
so that the change key brings one set of the abutting planes of the
tumbler in alinement with the surface of the cylindrical plug. This
plug is arranged so that a separate key is required to operate each
lock, the other line of cleavage through the blocks being the same with
all locks throughout the series, so that they may be opened with the
same key.

[Illustration: FIG. 45]

[Illustration: FIG. 46]

The =concentric cylindrical arrangement= of this type of lock is shown
in Fig. 46 (_a_) and (_b_). Here, there is a larger cylinder encircling
the key plug. This is known as the master-ring, or larger, plug, and is
indicated at _a_. When the change key is inserted in the key plug _b_,
the lower series of breaks in the pins comes into alinement with the
outer edge of the plug, as shown at (_a_), and allows it to revolve in
the master ring, the cam on the inner side at _c_ actuating the lock.
When the master key is inserted, the upper series of breaks comes into
alinement with the outer edge of the master ring, as shown at (_b_),
allowing the plug and the ring to rotate together with the turning of
the key, and thus to produce the same result as that caused by the
operation of the change key.

[Illustration: FIG. 47]

The =paracentric system=, sometimes called the _duplex system_,
consists in having two separate cylinders to each lock, as illustrated
in Fig. 47. One of these cylinders, generally the upper one, is
operated by the change key, and the lower one, by the master key.
The interior construction of the lock is so devised that each key
performs the necessary function of operating the same bolt, so that
the individual lock may always be opened by the change key, and all
locks of the series by the master key. This latter system of lock
construction is more expensive than the one-cylinder type, but it
possesses an advantage in that it provides greater security when a
limited number of locks are grouped in one series.

=41.= Owners or officials of large office buildings and industrial
works now avail themselves of the master-key system just explained.
They are able to obtain mortise locks, rim locks, and padlocks,
all arranged to operate with a master key, in one series. In fine
residence work, this system is also adopted. Such a system of locking
is easily recognized as convenient, especially where subordinates
are held responsible for certain rooms or departments to which they,
individually, have access, as all of the rooms or departments may be
entered by the manager or superintendent by the aid of the master key.

A series of master-key locks may also be “submaster-keyed” by dividing
it into subordinate groups. In such a case, each group is operated by a
master key of its own, and all the subordinate groups are controlled by
a grand master key. For example, a six-story office building could be
furnished throughout with locks having non-changeable keys; the doors
of each floor could be operated separately by a master key; and the
doors of the entire building could be operated by a grand master key.
The convenience of such a system is readily apparent in large buildings
where each janitor is responsible for a certain floor, and where the
head janitor, manager, or owner, has control of all the locks through
the grand master key.

In some instances, for additional security and for special work,
the corrugations in the keyway are changed in shape so that the
manufacturers’ regular type of key will not enter the keyway, or plug,
thus allowing no chance for the regular type of key to operate the
lock.

=42. Locks for Residence Use.=—The =front-door lock= is distinctly a
lock having two bolts; namely, a _dead bolt_ and a _latch bolt_. The
latter is operated by the knob, and is so arranged that, by means of
stop-work in the lock front, the outer knob may, at will, be set so as
not to operate the latch, the latch bolt being operated only from the
outside by a key.

[Illustration: FIG. 48]

The cylinder type of front-door lock illustrated in Fig. 44 is the best
lock for this purpose, as it provides the greatest security. This lock
is operated by a convenient key of the Yale type, which throws both
latch and dead bolt with one insertion into the cylinder.

Three-tumbler, front-door locks and latches are to be had at a low
cost, and are used in the cheaper class of dwellings. When the
residence has an inner, or vestibule, door, a similar lock is used
without the dead bolt; this lock is termed a _vestibule latch_. In all
cases the vestibule lock should “key-lock” with the front-door lock, so
that one key will operate both. The other exterior doors of a residence
should have either Yale locks master-keyed to the front door, for the
better class of work, or locks of the 5-inch, three-bolt variety, that
are furnished with an extra bolt in addition to the dead bolt, the
third bolt being operated by a thumb knob on the inside. When a cheaper
trim is wanted, a 4-inch, two-bolt lock, supplemented by a separate
mortise or rim bolt, may be used.

For the first- or parlor-floor folding doors, 4- or 4½-inch, two-bolt,
mortise locks are ordinarily employed. Where the doors are sliding,
a 5½-inch, sliding-door lock with dead bolt and pull, or handle,
is provided. The pull, or handle, is operated, or thrown out, when
needed by pushing a button, or stop, in the lock. This special type of
sliding-door lock is illustrated in Fig. 48.

For bedroom doors, a lock similar to that used on the minor exterior
doors is usually employed. The lock for these doors may be either a
5-inch, three-bolt lock, or a 4-inch, two-bolt lock supplemented with a
mortise bolt. For communicating doors, it is best to use a three-bolt,
knob lock, the latch bolt of which is operated by the knob from either
side. Arranged above or below this latch bolt are two dead bolts, each
being operated by its respective thumb piece on opposite sides of the
door. Locks of this character are made for both swinging and
sliding-doors.

=43. Locks for Twin-Closet and Other Interior Doors.=—Twin, or double,
doors are sometimes used between rooms in residences to deaden sound
or to increase privacy. Such doors should be fitted with the same type
of lock as other communicating doors, except that the lock should
be provided with two bolts, the same as the lock used for bathroom
doors. These locks are arranged with special trim on the abutting
face of each door, this trim having only a slight projection, and
knobs or lever handles projecting as little as possible, in order to
avoid interference on account of the limited space between the doors.
Bathroom doors are best fitted with a thumb bolt, either combined with
a lock or separate.

In fitting closet doors, it is best to use a two-bolt lock about 4
inches in size, with trim on both sides, so that the door may be
operated from inside in case it is accidentally closed on a person in
the closet. The possibility of this happening is slight, and usually a
saving is effected by using a knob latch without a dead bolt and a pair
of knobs with roses.

For basement or attic doors, a cheap type of mortise lock is
appropriate, or a rim lock may be used, if cost is a consideration.
Where care is exercised in the selection of locks in any one building,
great convenience will result from having all the different class
of locks about the building of the same grade, so that they may be
master-keyed in one set and thus give the owner control, with one key,
of all the locks. Each lock, however, will have its own individual, or
change, key, and should be selected and ordered with this object in
view. Another convenience may be had by ordering each room and closet
door keyed alike throughout the house, or alike throughout each floor,
so that the loss of a key will cause little or no inconvenience.

=44. Hotel and Office Locks.=—The purpose and use of master-keyed
locks has already been explained, but the employment of such locks
in large groups, as in the equipment of hotels and office buildings,
requires further discussion. The term _corridor door_ designates the
entrance from a corridor or a hallway to a bedroom or an office, while
_communicating doors_ are those between adjoining rooms. Frequently,
these doors are double, and are then known as twin doors, while the
term _closet doors_ is self-explanatory. Each of these doors requires a
_knob lock_; that is, a lock having the latch bolt operated by the knob
and the dead bolt operated by a key. Sometimes, in the case of locks on
closet doors, the dead bolt on communicating-door locks is omitted, and
a thumb bolt substituted. While all of the locks thus far enumerated
are used in hotels, and most of them in office buildings, technically
speaking, a _hotel lock_ is a master-keyed knob lock for doors from
the corridor to bedrooms, while an _office lock_ is an inverted lock;
that is, a lock with the keyhole above the knob. These latter locks are
usually master-keyed, especially for the doors from the corridor to the
office. Such locks as these may be master-keyed on any of the systems,
as previously explained. For office work, a small key is desirable,
so that cylinder locks are ordinarily employed, as the key for the
operation of such locks may be conveniently carried. For hotels,
however, a high-grade lever-tumbler lock with round, substantial keys
is desirable, because the keys are liable to hard usage, and should not
be convenient to carry in the pocket.

Hotel keys vary widely in arrangement, as well as in size, quality, and
price. The kind of action, or mechanism, to be adopted in a hotel lock
is frequently determined by the preference and experience of the hotel
manager, and it is desirable that he should be consulted in advance;
but the location and use of each door should be considered in the
selection of the locks for this character of building. It will thus be
seen that the subject of hardware for a hotel is one that requires the
most careful consideration of the architect.

The grouping of locks in a hotel should be studied, and, usually,
the best plan in large hotels is to group all of the locks on each
floor under one master key and to provide a different master key for
each floor, care being taken to limit the issue of master keys to the
smallest possible number of responsible persons. In some cases, a grand
master key is also provided that will open all the locks on every
floor. This arrangement of the locks entails an additional expense,
and also has the disadvantage that, in case the grand master key is
lost, all of the locks controlled by it should at once be set to a new
combination, in order to prevent access by the person into whose hands
the key has fallen. This procedure is both troublesome and expensive.

[Illustration: FIG. 49]

The foregoing remarks relating to hotel locks apply equally to office
locks, especially as to the arrangement for the operation with the
master key. In other respects, however, the locks for an office
building differ considerably from those used in hotels, for a hotel
lock must secure the door both when the room is occupied and when it
is not, whereas an office lock is used chiefly to secure it when not
occupied. In consequence of this, certain differences in action are
employed. All office locks have a latch bolt that is operated by the
knob from both sides and yet permits free ingress and egress. Various
methods, however, are employed to lock the door against ingress
except by means of a key. Sometimes this is accomplished by means of
a separate dead bolt operated by a master key from either side; in
other cases it is accomplished by a latch bolt only, by providing the
latter with a stop-work like a front-door lock. By this arrangement,
the outer knob may be stopped so that the latch bolt cannot be operated
from the exterior except by the key; and, again, the latch bolt
may be dead-locked from the outside by the key. The choice of these
arrangements is a matter of personal preference.

=45. Store-Door Trim.=—The technical term =store-door lock= originally
designated a heavy rim or mortise dead lock, but is now applied to a
combined lock and latch, the former being operated by a key from either
side, and the latter by a thumb piece located above the pull handle.
Such locks are made in a large variety of sizes and styles, the best
being of the cylinder type, as shown in Fig. 49. In this lock, the
latch is operated by the thumb piece during the day, while the dead
latch secures the door at night.

Plates and handles for the combined store-door lock and latch are also
made in many sizes and styles, from the plain rectangular type to the
most ornamental forms. Such trim offers good opportunity for effective
decoration, and no embellishment is so effective for a store’s entrance
door as a pair of handsome plates and handles of appropriate design.
For such trim, it is not uncommon to provide an outlay of from $25
to $30 per door. Some of the more elaborate store-door handles are
illustrated in Figs. 50 and 51. The trim illustrated in these plates
is very carefully selected by the architect to match the style of
architecture in which the building is designed, and the finish is
selected with as much care.

=46. Padlocks.=—While =padlocks= are not ordinarily included in
builders’ hardware, they are extensively used for factories, stables,
and other buildings of this character; thus some care should be taken
in their selection. Padlocks are made in a great variety of sizes,
styles, and qualities, and retail at prices ranging from 10 cents,
or less, to $5. Where these locks are exposed to moisture or to the
weather, they should be of bronze or of brass, with all of the interior
construction of the same material. If required for great security, that
is, for places where they are likely to be subjected to violence, they
should be very heavy, and preferably provided with steel shackles.
Padlocks constructed on the cylinder-lock principle may be obtained,
and should always be used where a series of locks that are operated by
separate keys and controlled by a master key is employed. Ordinarily,
a selection of padlocks should be made only after an inspection of the
actual samples, and not according to catalog representations.

[Illustration: FIG. 50]

[Illustration: FIG. 51]

=47. Cabinet Locks.=—The locks used in cabinetwork are distinct from
builders’ locks, though they are occasionally used in the construction
of the finer classes of interior finish, and, consequently, are of
interest to the architect. =Cabinet locks= are made chiefly of wrought
metal, and in a vast variety of kinds, sizes, and grades, so that care
should be exercised in their selection. The leading kind of cabinet
locks are drawer, or till, locks; wardrobe, or cupboard, locks; and
chest, box, and desk locks. Special locks are also manufactured for
many other purposes. For the best work, the Yale, or pin-tumbler, type
is desirable where great security is required, but for ordinary uses,
other types, with either flat or round keys are available. Many of the
cabinet locks admit of being master-keyed, and such locks are employed
on lockers in club rooms, armories, etc.

[Illustration: FIG. 52]

=48. Asylum and Prison Locks.=—For the doors of cells in insane
asylums, hospitals, and prisons, locks of special construction
are required. For this reason, a distinct class of hardware is
manufactured to meet the peculiar conditions that prevail. These
locks, which are designed primarily to prevent escape from the rooms,
or cells, are exceptionally exposed to attempts at tampering, and are
especially constructed to meet these conditions. There is an extensive
line of locks for these uses on the market. This line includes both
the Yale type and the lever-tumbler type of lock, and these locks are
constructed with both solid and barrel keys, thus affording a wide
range of selection. All such locks must be made so as to be controlled
by master keys.

In Fig. 52 are illustrated types of prison or asylum locks. The lock
shown at (_a_) is embedded, or built, in the jamb, while that at (_b_)
is secured to the door and the keeper is fastened in the jamb.

[Illustration: FIG. 53]

There are numerous other patterns of asylum and prison locks, such as
those illustrated in Fig. 53. The lock shown at (_a_) is arranged to
operate with a double-bitted key, while the one at (_b_) is operated by
means of a Yale key.

Nearly all modern locks for this purpose are operated with either
double-bitted or Yale keys, and those in common use are cylinder locks.
Information regarding these types of locks should be obtained in
advance, so that in preparing the plans and specifications, the type
selected may be clearly indicated and the arrangements made for any
special construction necessary to receive them. As the approved forms
of asylum or prison locks are built in the masonry during construction,
they must be delivered during the early stages of the erection of the
building.

=49. Bank and Safe Locks.=—Locks for the doors of burglar-proof and
fireproof safes and vaults constitute a group distinct from all others.
These locks embody the most complicated mechanism, and represent the
highest art of modern lock making. The architect in preparing plans
of buildings for banks and trust companies is frequently called on to
approve or to specify the fastenings for vault and safe doors. While
the owners of such buildings will probably predetermine the kind of
lock to be employed, nevertheless they will be guided by the advice
of the architect in the selection of some particular make. The locks
used on such vaults and safes comprise _time_, or _chronometer, locks_;
_dial_, or _combination, locks_; and _safe-deposit_ and _subtreasury
locks_. There is also a device known as a _bolt-motor_, or _automatic
lock_, which is an allied product. In the manufacture of these special
locks, the skill of numerous experts and specialists is required, and
as their knowledge is at the disposal of the architect or the engineer,
they should be consulted in the selection of such important pieces of
mechanism.

[Illustration: FIG. 54]

The =time lock= is illustrated in Fig. 54, and is a locking device
actuated by clockwork. This type of lock is used in connection with
the heavy boltwork of a safe door, to prevent it from unlocking
except during certain hours determined beforehand. This lock is now
recognized as an essential part of the equipment of all first-class,
burglar-proof vaults and safes. In its standard form, the time lock has
three chronometer movements of the finest construction, each of which
is competent to actuate the lock, so that, in this way, almost absolute
reliability is insured.

[Illustration: FIG. 55]

A =dial=, or =combination, lock= is shown in Fig. 55. The combination
commonly called the _dial lock_ has completely superseded the key lock
for use on safe and vault doors. Essentially, the dial lock consists of
a bolting mechanism guarded by a set of changeable tumblers, or wheels.
These tumblers are actuated by a spindle passing through the door,
this spindle being provided on the outer end with a graduated dial.
By rotating the dial in a certain manner, the dial can be set and the
lock operated. Dial, or combination, locks are made in two grades, or
varieties, designed respectively for burglar-proof and for fireproof
safes. The lock intended for burglar-proof purposes is heavy and made
to resist violence, while the other locks are smaller, simpler, and
cheaper, intended only to secure the door against ordinary intrusion.
Both of these locks should be absolutely “non-pickable.”

In connection with the time lock, an automatic bolt-operating device
is now used on burglar-proof safes. The =bolt-motor= is a mechanism
containing heavy springs and is attached to the inside of a safe door.
These springs are set, or braced, while the door is closed, and when
released by the action of the time lock are capable of automatically
retracting the heavy boltwork of the door. This construction obviates
the necessity of any spindle through the door, and leaves the surface
absolutely unbroken, without any communication between the interior and
exterior.

[Illustration: FIG. 56]

A form of =safe-deposit lock= is illustrated in Fig. 56. This lock
is of a new type, and is intended expressly for individual safes, or
boxes, rented by the safe-deposit companies. Such locks are nearly
always provided with a guard key, which is in charge of a custodian
and common to all the locks in the series. Each lock has its own
individual, or change, key, however, which differs from every other
key in the series. Before a change key can be inserted into its lock,
the guard mechanism must be unlocked by the guard key in charge of
the custodian. This makes the presence of the latter a necessary
preliminary to the unlocking of the box by the renter or his authorized
agent. Many styles and sizes of safe-deposit locks are made to meet
varying conditions, the lock probably most used being the Yale, or
pin-tumbler, variety, in which additional security is obtained by using
keys of special proprietary forms. For safe-deposit boxes of large
size, the dial lock is often used.

=Subtreasury locks= are intended for use on the small safety chests,
or “subtreasuries,” often placed within a fireproof safe. These locks,
which are illustrated in Fig. 57, are of various types and sizes, and
are suitable for use on metal doors of all kinds.

[Illustration: FIG. 57]

=50. Care and Maintenance of Locks.=—Locks, like other pieces of
mechanism, need reasonable care and attention to keep them in the
best condition. As they contain moving parts, they are subjected to
frictional wear and need occasional lubrication. Most of the friction,
and consequently the wear, occurs in the beveled latch bolt, which
may be readily lubricated. If the latch bolt is troublesome, its face
and back should be cleaned with a cloth moistened with naphtha or
kerosene, to remove any dirt. These surfaces should then be wiped with
another cloth saturated with machine oil or, better, with vaseline. Any
person can perform this simple work, and if it is done once or twice
a year, it will keep the bolts in such condition that each door will
close easily and quietly at all times. Another cause of trouble is the
tendency of the old-fashioned knob screw to become loose, thus allowing
the knob to pull from the spindle. Where such spindles are used, it
is a good plan to inspect them occasionally and to tighten any loose
screws. The best results from lock hardware, however, can be obtained
by having all locks and hardware inspected by a lock expert about once
a year.

=51. Pottery Knobs.=—=Door knobs=, which are important appurtenances
to locks and latches, are made of many kinds of materials, and are
fastened to the spindle in several ways. It is necessary, in order
to make the proper selection of knobs for doors, to be thoroughly
conversant with the various types on the market. The cheapest type of
door knob is molded from several kinds of clay. These =pottery knobs=
are secured to iron or bronze shanks by _leading_; that is, by setting
them in molten lead, which, in hardening, secures the knob to the shank.

[Illustration: FIG. 58]

Pottery knobs are made in three styles, namely, _mineral_, _jet_,
and _porcelain_. Mineral knobs are dark brown in color, while jet
and porcelain knobs are, respectively, jet black and pure white.
All of these knobs are highly glazed, and are used only with the
cheapest grades of locks. Ordinarily, they are furnished with japanned
mountings, or shank and rose; occasionally, however, they may be had
with bronze-plated, real bronze, or brass mountings. The several styles
of porcelain knobs are illustrated in Fig. 58. At (_a_) is shown the
mineral knob, while at (_b_) and (_c_) are shown the porcelain and jet
kinds.

=52. Wooden Knobs.=—Knobs made of wood are quite generally used.
They are always turned from some hardwood, and are either stained or
finished naturally. The wooden knob is usually forced on the shank
by hydraulic pressure, and when securely fastened in this way makes
a desirable and cheap knob. Many of the cheaper wooden knobs on the
market are only glued or cemented to the shank, and, consequently, are
not durable, as they pull off; they are therefore entirely undesirable.
The mountings for the better knobs are made of iron, brass, or bronze,
though they may be had with wooden roses. Mountings of wood, however,
should not be used, as any severe side strain on the knob will split
the rose with the grain of the wood. In Fig. 59 are shown two wooden
knobs, the one at (_a_) having a metal rose, and the one at (_b_) a
wooden rose.

=53. Cast-Iron Knobs.= Cheap locks are usually provided with knobs
made of cast-iron, and, although they are strong and serviceable, they
are seldom attractive. For finishing knobs of this kind, a bronze
metal plating is usually employed. Cast-iron knobs are frequently made
ornamental instead of plain. A typical cast-iron knob and rose are
shown in Fig. 60.

[Illustration: FIG. 59]

[Illustration: FIG. 60]

=54. Stamped and Spun-Metal Knobs.=—Knobs made of sheet metal have
lately come into extensive use, and they may be obtained in a large
variety of designs and forms. Plain and ornamental steel knobs are
illustrated in Fig. 61. Knobs ornamented in any style of design are in
the market, and are artistic and usually well modeled.

[Illustration: FIG. 61]

=55. Bronze or Brass Knobs.=—Knobs of bronze or brass are always used
in buildings of the better class, and all ornamental knobs of the
higher grade are made of these materials. The best knobs are usually
solid; that is, cast in one piece, with the exception that the shank
is inserted. Others are made in composite form, consisting of a steel
interior shell, or frame, over which is tightly drawn an external
section, or covering, of wrought-bronze or brass of substantial
thickness. The completed knob, if properly made in this manner, is
practically as strong as the hollow-cast knob and resists bruising or
other injury.

=56. Glass Knobs.=—The most expensive knobs made are those of cut glass
with metal mountings. Several knobs of this kind are illustrated in
Fig. 62. Cut-glass or crystal-glass knobs are very costly, the price
depending on the style and the amount of cutting required and on the
grade of glass used. The new method of mounting glass knobs allows for
adjusting the knobs to doors of varying thicknesses, and also gives the
knobs a handsome appearance, making them both durable and reliable.

=57. Styles and Sizes of Knobs.=—The pottery knobs, such as the
mineral, jet, and porcelain knobs, are made only in spheroidal and oval
shapes. The spheroidal knobs are 2¼ inches in diameter, and the oval
knobs 2½ in. × 1¾ in.

Cast-iron and stamped-steel knobs are made spheroidal and of the box
pattern, with plain and molded edges, both styles of knobs being about
2¼ inches in diameter.

Bronze and brass knobs are usually spheroidal or ball-shaped, and are
2¼ and 2½ inches in diameter. They are also made oval and egg-shaped,
these latter styles being provided in two sizes, namely, 3 in. × 2 in.
and 2½ in. × 1¾ in. The same general dimensions obtain for wooden and
glass knobs.

[Illustration: FIG. 62]

=58. Lock Spindles.=—In supplying a pair of knobs, there is always
included with them the _spindle_, which connects them and passes
through the hub of the lock. The type of spindle generally used is the
=common=, or =side-screw=, =spindle=, which is shown in Fig. 63. In
this spindle, the knobs are secured by means of a knob screw passing
through a hole in the knob and engaging with one of the threaded holes
in the spindle. There are several holes in the spindle, so that the
distance the knobs are apart may be adjusted properly. Should further
adjustment be required, it is accomplished by placing thin washers at
the end of the knob shank. This type of spindle is generally used with
the cheap grades of trim, and should not be used in high-grade work.

[Illustration: FIG. 63]

There is a modern type of lock spindle, known as the =“screwless”
spindle=, that permits the proper adjustment of the knobs without
the use of washers and with less screws. These spindles overcome the
general looseness and rattle found in the common type. A “screwless”
spindle, known as the _Triplex_, is illustrated in Fig. 64. This
spindle is a first-class device, and is constructed, as shown, of three
parallel parts, triangular in section, which, together, form a square
bar. To fasten the knob on this spindle, a setscrew in the knob bears
on the center bar, and owing to their wedge form, the two side bars are
forced apart and into frictional engagement with the spindle of the
knob. The spindle itself is screwless, and there is nothing tending to
loosen the setscrew, so that when once properly tightened, the knob
will remain firm and in position on the spindle under all conditions
of use. In some instances, this style of spindle has been condemned by
owners and architects. This has been due largely to the fact that the
mechanic did not set the screw tight against the spindle, thus allowing
the knob to be easily pulled off. This is often caused by not using a
screwdriver that exactly fits the head of the screw. When the knobs
are put in place as they should be, this device always gives entire
satisfaction.

[Illustration: FIG. 64]

[Illustration: FIG. 65]

There is another, though somewhat costly, type in the market, known as
the =wrench spindle=. This spindle is illustrated in Fig. 65. As shown,
the mechanism consists of a chuck, or vise-like arrangement, formed
on the knob shank. When the nut _a_ is screwed on the jaws _b_, the
tendency is to grip the spindle securely, the latter being solid and
without screw holes. This type of spindle allows perfect adjustment.

Another type of knob spindle is the =swivel spindle=. This is used with
front, vestibule, and other door locks that have stop-work, whereby the
outside knob may be made operative or not, as desired. In order to
accomplish this, the spindle is divided longitudinally, so that one end
may rotate independently of the other.

The standard sizes of spindles for door locks, etc. are ₅/₁₆ and ⅜ inch
square. Occasionally, spindles as large as ½ inch square are used for
large knobs or handles, such as would be used with massive lock trim.
For thumb knobs and locks and latches of this character, spindles ¼
inch square are employed.

=59. Key Tags for Hotel Use.=—Considerable confusion is frequently
created by hotel guests taking with them on departure the key to their
rooms. Formerly, hotel managers sought to prevent this practice by
attaching to each key a large tag of iron or brass, generally serrated
on the edges and made so cumbersome as to practically preclude its
being carried in the pocket. Subsequently, tags made of red fiber of
large size became popular. The usual forms of these large tags, whether
of brass or fiber, are illustrated in Fig. 66. The use of key tags,
however, is gradually being superseded by having the name of the hotel
and number of the room stamped plainly on the key bow, the stamped name
of the house serving for its quick identification and return by mail.
The latest and best development in this detail consists in attaching
to the key bow, by means of a short chain, either an ornamental disk
bearing the name of the hotel and the number of the room, or a small
ball, the name and key number still being retained on the key bow. In
either case, the short pendant serves for convenience in the use of the
key, diminishes the danger of misplacing it, and, if well designed,
contributes to its appearance.

[Illustration: FIG. 66]

WINDOW SASH HARDWARE

SASH TRIM FOR DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOWS

=60. Sash Pulleys.=—The pulleys for the counterbalancing of
double-hung, or sliding, windows, while apparently unimportant pieces
of hardware, are worthy of much consideration in their selection, and
in the preparation of the specifications care should be exercised to
provide the best pulley consistent with the character of the work. It
is good practice to furnish the millmen with a sample of the pulleys
that are to be used, so that the frame will be properly mortised to
receive them when the sash are hung. By this method, the necessity of
exposing the case to the weather during the erection of the structure
is obviated.

[Illustration: FIG. 67]

The common grades of sash pulleys are rough and cheap, and may be used
for unimportant work and light sashes. For heavier sashes and important
work, however, a better grade of larger and heavier construction should
be used. It is important in specifying sash pulleys to stipulate the
size of the pulley and to specify the diameter of the axle; also to
state whether brass or bronze wheels and bronze faces are desired.
Pulleys are supplied in 1¾-, 2-, 2¼-, 2½-, and 3-inch diameters. The
required diameter of the pulley is determined by the thickness of the
pulley stile and the diameter of the sash weight required to balance
the sash.

[Illustration: FIG. 68]

[Illustration: FIG. 69]

The cases in which the pulleys are mounted in the cheaper grades
are made of cast-iron, while in the better grades they are made of
stamped metal. High-grade pulleys constructed of stamped metal are
also provided; these are put together either by riveting the two faces
of the pulley or by electrically welding them. The construction of a
built-up steel pulley is illustrated in Fig. 67. The cases enclosing
the pulleys are made of cast-iron, as illustrated in Fig. 68 (_a_),
or they are constructed of stamped metal, as shown at (_b_). The ends
of the facing of the case are made square, rounded, or auger-shaped,
and are finished either rough, polished, or lacquered, or are faced
with brass or bronze of any finish desired. The pulleys illustrated
in Fig. 69 (_a_) are so constructed that the mortise in the frame may
be readily formed by a special boring machine carrying three or four
bits. This machine bores holes of a size to fit the several cylindrical
portions of the stamped-metal case, as at _a, a_, a diagram of the
mortising in the frame being illustrated at (_b_).

[Illustration: FIG. 70]

The better grades of pulleys may be procured with semi-steel, brass, or
bronze wheels, and with plain axles or with ball or roller bearings.
In the cheaper grades of sash pulleys, the axles are formed of common
wire, while in the better grades they are made of either steel or gun
metal ⅜ inch in diameter. In the best pulleys, the wheels are turned,
to insure smoothness of motion, and are made with grooves for cord,
ribbon, or chain. All steel pulleys built up as illustrated in Fig.
67 are of recent invention; they run smoothly, and are very easily
applied. These pulleys are also made with ball or roller bearings, and
may be obtained at a reasonable price.

[Illustration: FIG. 71]

There is a special type of sash pulleys that may be used for twin and
triple windows, where it is necessary to form a narrow mullion between
the windows. This pulley is known as the _Grant overhead sash pulley_,
and is used as illustrated in Fig. 70. At (_a_) is a twin-window
arrangement, showing the sash on the two sides double-hung, each sash
being counterbalanced by means of one counterweight. By this means, the
frame mullion between the two sashes can be made as narrow as 2 inches,
which is an advantage where the maximum amount of daylight opening is
desired. Frequently, in triple windows, the center sash, as well as the
two side sashes, is made double-hung. In such a case, the arrangement
of the overhead pulleys would be as shown in Fig. 70 (_b_). These
pulleys provide a convenient means for arranging double-hung windows of
this type, but sufficient room must be left in the head of the window
to allow for the insertion of this pulley and the travel of the sash
counterweights. The construction of this type of overhead pulley with
roller bearings is shown in Fig. 71.

=61. Determination of Size of Sash or Frame Pulleys.=—The architect’s
specifications should stipulate the diameter of the sash pulleys to be
used in the work, and this item requires careful consideration. Where
care is not exercised in this regard, either the pulleys will be so
small that the weight will rub against the pulley stile, or they will
be so large that the weight will rub the jamb casing on the opposite
side of the pocket. Standard sash pulleys are made in sizes from 1¾ to
3 inches in diameter, varying by quarter inches. In determining the
diameter of the pulley required for a particular window frame, a good
rule is to multiply the thickness of the pulley stile by 2.25; thus, a
⅞-inch stile would require a 2-inch pulley; a 1⅛-inch stile, a 2½-inch
pulley; and a 1⅜-inch stile, a 3-inch pulley. It is best to specify
that pulleys for metallic frames shall be of the larger size, namely, 3
inches in diameter; and also that these pulleys shall have ⅜-inch axles.

=62. Sash Cords and Chains.=—The =sash cords= by which the sashes are
attached to the counterweights in double-hung windows are usually
furnished by the carpenter, and are so specified. However, they may be
specified under hardware. The specification for the sash cord should
state both the size and the maker’s name, and for good standard work
_Sansom Spot_ or _Silver Lake_ sash cords are the best that can be
procured. Table VI will be found convenient in determining the diameter
of the cord and the consequent size by number, as well as the size of
the sash pulley.

TABLE VI

STANDARD SIZE OF SASH CORD FOR PULLEYS

----+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------
| | Average | | |
Size|Diameter| Weight | Average | Heaviest| Smallest
No. | of Cord|per Dozen|Number of|Weight to|Pulley to
| Inch | Hanks | Feet per| Be Used | Be Used
| | Pounds | Pound | Pounds | Inches
----+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------
6 | ³/₁₆ | 18 | 66 | 5 | 1½
7 | ⁷/₃₂ | 22 | 55 | 15 | 1¾
8 | ¼ | 27 | 44 | 25 | 2
9 | ⁹/₃₂ | 33 | 36 | 35 | 2¼
10 | ⁵/₁₆ | 44 | 27 | 45 | 2½
12 | ⅜ | 60 | 20 | 55 | 3
====+========+=========+=========+=========+=========

=Sash chains= are made in the form illustrated in Fig. 72, and may
be had either in steel, red metal, or bronze. The sash chains in the
market are usually made in four sizes, being numbered from 0 to 3.
The makers, however, have no agreement regarding these standards, so
that the numbering is not uniform; one manufacturer’s No. 0 chain may
be his heaviest make, while a chain of the same number furnished by
another maker may be the lightest chain that he manufactures. In order
to provide against this discrepancy when specifying, it is well to name
the maker of the chain. The lightest sash chain will support sashes
weighing from 40 to 75 pounds, while the heaviest will carry sashes
that weigh from 150 to 250 pounds.

[Illustration: FIG. 72]

[Illustration: FIG. 73]

=63. Sash Balances.=—By the use of =sash balances=, one of which
is shown in Fig. 73, there is no necessity for weight boxes,
counterweights, etc. The contrivance illustrated has been manufactured
for many years, and the original intention was to have it displace
the sash pulley, cord, and weight for double-hung windows. Installing
spring sash pulleys costs more than the older method of hanging by
means of counterweights. They are constructed with a long, spiral
spring enclosed by a drum, on which the tape _a_, Fig. 73, winds and
thus raises the sash. The coil spring in this balance is made of
either light or heavy material, according to the weight of the sash it
is intended to counterbalance. They are seldom used, however, except
where there is insufficient room for sash weights. The steel tape is
liable to be twisted and broken by jarring in operating the sash, and
for general use it has been found that the most positive action is
secured by pulleys and weights.

=64. Weight of Sash and Glass.=—In estimating the weight of window
sash, in order that the size of the counterweights or of the spring
counterbalance may be determined, the weight of the glass per square
foot may be taken as follows: Plate glass, 3½ pounds; double-thick
glass, 1½ pounds; and single-thick glass, 1 pound. To find the weight
of the wooden sash, add together the height and the width of the
sash, in feet, and multiply by 2.1 for 2¼-inch sash, by 1.67 for
1¾-inch sash, and by 1.33 for 1⅜-inch sash. The several sizes of sash
given indicate the thickness of the sash frame. While these data for
determining the weight of sash are not exact, they are sufficiently
accurate to fix the size of the sash cords and pulleys and to estimate
the weight required to counterbalance them. The best practice in
counterbalance sashes, however, is to weigh the sash after it has been
glazed; in this manner the exact weight and size of the counterweights
required can be determined. The approximate weights of ordinary glazed
sash are usually given in the catalogs of manufacturers of sash
weights, pulleys, etc., and will be found convenient in determining the
approximate weight of sash weights without making the calculations just
described when estimating.

=65. Sash Locks, or Fasts.=—There are many different makes of =sash
locks= for double-hung sash in the market. In Fig. 74 are shown several
of the older type of sash locks that have been used extensively. The
lock shown at (_a_) is known as the _Champion_; that at (_b_), as the
_Ives_, and that at (_c_), as the _Boston_. This type of sash lock,
the construction of which is apparent from the illustration, has given
satisfaction for a number of years.

[Illustration: FIG. 74]

[Illustration: FIG. 75]

[Illustration: FIG. 76]

A newer type of sash lock is that illustrated in Figs. 75 and 76.
In Fig. 75 is shown a sash lock known as the _Fitch_. This lock is
made by several manufacturers, and can be procured in all finishes of
iron for the cheaper class of buildings, and also in bronze metal for
high-class work. It is composed of a helical cam, which is fastened
to the top of the meeting rail of the lower sash and engages with a
hook, or lug, that is secured to the bottom of the upper sash. The
operation of this fastener is rapid, and the rotary movement draws the
two sashes together horizontally and forces them in opposite directions
vertically. In this way, it holds the sash fast and prevents rattling
and air leaks. It also has an advantage in that it cannot be moved
by inserting a knife blade between the sashes from the outside. The
_Yale screw sash fast_ illustrated in Fig. 76 is an excellent piece
of hardware. It accomplishes the same results as the Fitch lock;
namely, drawing the sash together by the tightening of a thumb nut on
a fine-pitched screw. This nut operates against a semicircular-shaped
upright hook, or lug, on the lower sash, thus developing great pressure
in the desired direction. While this sash fastener takes somewhat
longer to operate than the Fitch, it repays by providing greater
security.

=66. Sash Lifts.=—While =sash lifts= are not required for the cheapest
work, as the window can be raised by pushing against the parting rail
or against the mullions, nevertheless they are made to sell at such
reasonable prices that it would seem advisable to place them on the
lower sash of all buildings, no matter how unimportant.

[Illustration: FIG. 77]

[Illustration: FIG. 78]

[Illustration: FIG. 79]

The common type of sash lift illustrated in Fig. 77 is known as the
_hook sash lift_. This lift is extensively used, and can be procured in
any grade or weight, in either cast-iron, steel, or bronze metal, and
in any finish desired.

The _flush sash lift_, the general type of which is shown in Fig. 78,
makes a better appearance than the hook lift, and is considerably
stronger, from the fact that the casing forming the grip is let into
the lower rail of the sash, and the strain is taken by this, rather
than by the screws. These lifts are made in either steel or bronze, and
in all finishes; they can also be had ornamented to correspond with the
lock trim.

For heavy sashes, such as those in public and commercial buildings, the
_bar sash lift_ illustrated in Fig. 79 is the best. This type of lift
should always be used for heavy sash. A sash lift similar to the type
shown at (_a_) is sometimes fastened to the under side of the meeting
rail of the upper sash for the purpose of lowering the sash.

[Illustration: FIG. 80]

[Illustration: FIG. 81]

=67. Sash Sockets and Pole Hooks.=—In buildings having high ceilings,
where the top sash is some distance from the floor, as is likely to
occur in institutions, schools, and factories, it is necessary to
provide “pull-down” poles for the purpose of raising and lowering the
upper sash. The hooks used on the ends of such poles, which are made of
some tough wood, are as illustrated in Fig. 80. Unless the upper sash
is furnished with metal plates that have a hole, or aperture, the pole
will be used against the mullion or upper rail of the window sash and
thus mar the woodwork. The plates, or metal sockets, to engage the sash
and pull-down poles, are illustrated in Fig. 81. They may be had in all
metals and finishes and in several sizes.

[Illustration: FIG. 82]

=68. Stop-Screws.=—The _stop-bead screws_, or _washers_, or, as they
are more commonly known, the =window-stop=, or =bead, adjusters=, types
of which are illustrated in Figs. 82 and 83, are necessary hardware
adjuncts to the window trim for buildings of the better class. In
ordinary work, these stops are secured to the frame by nailing, but
when they are fastened in this manner, the stop-beads are disfigured
if it is necessary to remove them. A cheap and good way of fastening
these stop-beads is to use ordinary round-headed screws. While these
adjusters answer the purpose very well, they do not allow for the
adjustment of the stop-bead sidewise, so as to take up any shrinkage
that might occur in the sash and prevent it from rattling, as well as
making it air-tight.

[Illustration: FIG. 83]

To overcome this deficiency, a =surface washer=, as illustrated in
Fig. 82, was originated. The surface washer was ordinarily made about
⅝ inch in diameter, and was provided with one large hole about ⅜ inch
in diameter or with two smaller holes placed side by side horizontally
across the stop. By this means, the proper adjusting of the stop-bead
was provided for, the washer covering the opening, or hole, through the
stop. However, the defect in this method consisted in the marring of
the finished stop when adjustment was required, for the washer left its
imprint on the woodwork, and, when shifted, this would show.

The best form of stop-bead washer is illustrated in Fig. 83, and is
known as the _Taplin adjusting screw_ and _countersunk cup washer_.
This device is composed of a sunken, or cup, washer with a slotted or
horizontal hole in its base frame, so as to allow about a ³/₁₆-inch
adjustment. This adjustment, as can be clearly seen from the figure, is
made without marring, or disfiguring, the stop-bead in any way. These
countersunk washers may be had in bronze or steel, those made of steel
being finished to match the hardware, as desired.

[Illustration: FIG. 84]

TRIMMINGS FOR PIVOTED AND CASEMENT SASH

=69. Sash Centers.=—When a transom sash is hung at the top or the
bottom, regular hinge butts may be used; but where a sash is pivoted
at the center, either on the sides or at the top and bottom, a pivoted
arrangement, termed a =sash center=, is needed. For large sash or
heavy transoms, and especially for those that are exterior sash, the
rabbeted center should be used. This type of center is illustrated in
Fig. 84; its construction gives great strength and completely closes
the joint against light and water.

An excellent type of center, known as the _Howarth sash center_, is
illustrated in Fig. 85, the method by which it is attached to the frame
and sash being clearly indicated. By this arrangement, the two parts of
the center fold, or butt, against each other and form a tight joint,
the stop-bead for the sash at the top and bottom being arranged as
indicated at _a a_.

[Illustration: FIG. 85]

There is a sash center, known as the _Tabor_, that is constructed as
shown in Fig. 86. This center is used for very large sash that are
vertically pivoted; that is, arranged with a center at the top and
bottom. Such sash as these are used extensively in office buildings,
because, by their use, the entire window may be thrown open at one
time. The Tabor device consists of a special sub-sill, which engages
with a ribbed joint strip placed on the bottom of the sash. By this
means, a weather-tight joint is secured, and the sash is firmly
locked in a closed position. By throwing a lever, the sash is raised
above the astragal, or sub-sill, and can then be operated. The top
rail is supplied with a filling strip having an irregular joint at
the intersection with the sash, and is held firmly by a coil spring
encircling the top pivot.

In Fig. 87 are shown several sash centers of the common type. These
possess no particular merit, but are much used for common work.

[Illustration: FIG. 86]

[Illustration: FIG. 87]

=70. Transom Lifts.=—The =transom lift= illustrated in Fig. 88 is
distinctly an American device for operating and fastening the transom
lights over doors. This device is used extensively in hotel and office
buildings. It is made in various styles and sizes necessary to meet the
several requirements. The transom lift consists of a vertical sliding
rod that is placed on the door jambs, as at _a_, with an arm at the top
connecting it with the sash, as at _b_. Near the bottom is a clamp, or
grip, that holds the bar _a_ in any desired position. By a vertical
movement of the rod, the sash is caused to swing. Transom lifts may
be had for transom sashes that are pivoted at the center or for those
which are hinged at the top or the bottom. At (_a_) and (_b_) in Fig.
88 are shown the types of transom lifts for center-pivoted sash; the
former arranged so that the sash pitches outwards, while in the latter
the sash pitches inwards. At (_c_), the device is shown where the sash
is hinged at the top, while at (_d_) the sash is hinged at the bottom.
The several kinds of transom lifts made by the various manufacturers
are practically alike, except for variations in the form of the grip,
or clamp. The range of sizes and quality of transom lifts is large. The
commercial article may be obtained in steel, copper or bronze plated,
or in bronze or brass. They are made in ¼-, ⁵/₁₆-, ⅜-, and ½-inch
sizes, the size being determined by the weight of the sash and the
degree of rigidity and solidity desired to be obtained and expressed.
For good work, the ⅜" and ½" diameters are used. The rods may be
obtained in lengths of from 3 to 12 feet. In specifying or ordering
transom lifts, the rod should always be sufficiently long to reach
within 5 feet of the floor.

[Illustration: FIG. 88]

[Illustration: FIG. 89]

=71. Transom Catches.=—In Fig. 89 are illustrated types of =transom
spring catches=, or =bolts=. These devices are provided in the several
forms shown to meet various conditions. Those shown at (_a_), (_b_),
and (_c_) have a ring, or eye, in the handle, to which an operating
cord may be suspended, or into which a pull-down hook may be inserted,
to operate the sash. The transom catch at (_d_) is made expressly for
operation by means of a pull-down hook. In very wide windows, for the
purpose of limiting the opening of the sash, these catches should be
used in conjunction with chains instead of with transom lifts.

=72. Transom Chains.=—In Fig. 90 are illustrated several types of
=transom chains=. The chains shown at (_a_) and (_b_) are suitable
for sashes weighing not more than 25 pounds, while that at (_c_) is
sufficiently strong for sashes weighing over 25 pounds. These chains
are fastened to cleats furnished with countersunk screw holes for
securing readily to the frame and sash. When the sash is hinged at the
bottom, these chains are used to limit the opening of the sash. They
are sometimes employed as an additional guard, to prevent the sash from
falling in case the sash lifter becomes broken. The ordinary lengths
of sash chains range from 8 to 24 inches, the latter length being
sufficient for the opening of the largest sash.

[Illustration: FIG. 90]

=73. Casement Trim.=—The term _casement_ applies properly to any hinged
sash. It is, however, usually limited to windows that have a sill set
some distance above the floor. Where the casement sash extends to
the floor, the term _French window_ is generally applied, although
frequently the terms are confused. In designing casement windows,
the details of the hardware should be such that the casements can be
made weather-tight; and in laying out the full-sized details for the
mill work for a casement sash and frame, the available hardware should
be studied, so that the woodwork may be arranged to conform to it.

=74. Casement Bolts and Fasts.=—Casement sash may be provided with any
good form of top and bottom bolts or hinged sash fasteners, but these
should be supplemented by a good latch or cupboard catch at the center.
Special =turnbuckles=, or =casement fasts=, constructed as shown in
Fig. 91, are on the market. All of the catches shown will securely
fasten the sash, but the types shown at (_a_) and (_d_), Fig. 91, will
draw the sash tightly against the frame when the buckle, or fast, is
drawn in place. In countries where casement sash are in general use,
the necessary fastenings, including the top and bottom bolts, are
embodied in one structure, as described in the following article.

[Illustration: FIG. 91]

=75. Cremorne Bolts.=—In the best work, the =Cremorne bolt= is used for
casement windows. This device consists of a vertical rod divided at or
about the middle of its length, thus making two pieces, and is operated
by a knob, or handle, at that point. Types of ornamental Cremorne
bolts are illustrated in Fig. 92. As shown, the upper and lower ends
of the rods, or bolts, slide vertically and in opposite directions,
being operated by the turning of the knob, or handle. These bolts
are furnished with suitable strikes, either of the plate or the box
form, which are attached to the window at the top or the bottom. Since
the ends of the bolts are beveled, they press the two sashes tightly
together and against the sash frame when they are thrown in. A single
movement of the knob, or lever handle, is sufficient to release both
bolts.

[Illustration: FIG. 92]

=76. Espagnolette Bolts.=—In Fig. 93 is shown the =Espagnolette bolt=,
which is similar in construction to the Cremorne bolt. This bolt
consists of a vertical rod, but instead of being in two pieces, as
in the Cremorne bolt, it is in one piece. This rod has hooks at each
end, and, by a rotary motion, engages pins, or plates, in the window
frame and thus draws the sashes together and against the frame. These
bolts are usually operated by a pendant handle, which, when lifted to
a horizontal position, will release the rod so that it may be rotated
to fasten or to release the sash. For very high sash, a supplemental
design may be used by providing a tapered hook on the opposite sash
for the pendant. The Espagnolette bolt is usually heavier than the
Cremorne and exerts more power in forcing the sashes against the frame;
it is also more expensive. Both bolts, however, are available for
use on doors as well as on windows, and lend themselves admirably to
decorative treatment, as shown in the illustrations.

[Illustration: FIG. 93]

The same care should be exercised in the selection of these bolts
as for other hardware, and when ordering them, full-sized details
should accompany the order, showing sections through the top rail and
head-jamb, the bottom rail, the sill, and the lock stile. The exact
measurement of the height and the width of the openings should also be
given, and the information should state whether the sash swings inwards
or outwards. The hand of the active leaf, as well as the height of
the handle from the floor, should also be given. In Fig. 94 are shown
sections through a casement sash, illustrating the conditions requiring
the use of Espagnolette bolts, and, as just stated, sections similar to
these should be furnished the dealer, or manufacturer, so that these
bolts will fit the construction when they are delivered.

[Illustration: FIG. 94]

[Illustration: FIG. 95]

[Illustration: FIG. 96]

=77. Casement Adjusters.=—In order to hold pivoted or hinged sash in a
partly open position, it is necessary to use =casement-sash adjusters=.
These adjusters, and the method of applying them, are illustrated in
Fig. 95. In this figure is shown the adjuster applied to a sash pivoted
at the top and the bottom, but the device can as well be applied to a
casement sash hinged at the sides.

There are many forms of casement-sash adjusters, the common types being
illustrated in Fig. 96. They are arranged for sash that open either
inwards or outwards, and may be applied to either pivoted or hinged
sash. Most casement-sash adjusters usually consist of a rod or a bar
attached to the sash by a hinged or pivoted joint. The rod passes
through a clamp on the frame, or sill, and this rod, when the clamp is
tightened, holds the sash firmly in any desired position.

=78. Window and Shutter Operating Devices.=—The sash-operating device
is provided for the purpose of controlling a number of sash in a line
by one piece of mechanism. Frequently, divided sashes are arranged side
by side in skylights, clearstories, and monitors. These windows are
usually some distance from the floor, and the operating device must be
so arranged that it can be worked conveniently. The device illustrated
in Fig. 97 is known as the _Lovell window and shutter operating
device_, and consists of two longitudinal sections of pipe shafting _a_
connected to cog racks _b_ at the end. These cog racks in turn engage
with a cog, or wheel, shaft _c_, as indicated in the figure. Connecting
arms _d_, with swivel joints at each end, are arranged between the pipe
shafts and the sash. The ends connected to the sash are secured to the
same by means of plates and wood screws, and the swivel joint at the
other end is provided with a sleeve, or socket, that is secured to the
pipe shafts with a setscrew. The commendable feature of this device is
that it is operated by a straight push or pull of the arm, instead of a
twist, as in some other devices on the market. When the chain, or rope,
around the large chain wheel is pulled, the cog is turned, and as it
engages the racks, it thrusts one pipe horizontally in one direction
and the other in an opposite direction. By this means, the connecting
arms to the sash approach one another and lengthen the distance between
the shafting and the sash, which movement tends to push the sash open,
the sash being closed by the opposite operation. By this device as much
as 500 feet of sash may be operated by one wheel, or “power,” as it is
called. This chain wheel, or power, may be located either in the center
or at the terminals, and by careful adjustment will simultaneously
close all the sashes tight against the frame.

[Illustration: FIG. 97]

DOOR HARDWARE AND ITS APPLICATION

=79. Door Pulls.=—In Fig. 98 are illustrated two well-known types
of =door pulls.= The pull shown at (_a_) consists of a handle that
is usually mounted on a plate and attached to either storm or
single-acting doors, although, occasionally, this type is used on
double-acting doors with the word “push” or “pull” inscribed on the
plate. When used on double-acting doors, the door pull has a tendency
to obviate the habit of persons placing their hands on the moldings
near the glass when operating the door, but is subject to the objection
of inviting a pull to open the door even with the word “push” inscribed
on the plate.

[Illustration: FIG. 98]

Door pulls are made in various metals, both in plain and ornamental
design, some of the latter being very elaborate, as will be observed
from Fig. 99.

=80. Kick Plates.=—A =kick plate= is a modern device that may be
applied to the bottom of doors to protect the woodwork from injury and
wear, being used chiefly for double-acting doors and doors of public
buildings. These plates are frequently made of sheet metal, but are
much handsomer when made of cast metal and ornamented to harmonize with
other metal work of the door.

[Illustration: FIG. 99]

Kick plates should completely cover the bottom rail of the door, but if
cost is the controlling factor, they may be cut down in height so that
a margin of wood the same width as the side, or lock, stile shows above
the plate. For instance, if the bottom rail is 12 inches in height and
the stile is 5 inches wide, the kick plate should be 7 inches high.
In all cases, kick plates should extend the full width of the door,
allowing enough margin, when used on double-acting-doors, for the
rounding of the edges. When used on single-acting doors having rabbeted
jambs, the rabbet of both jambs should be deducted from the length of
the kick plate. A typical kick plate of plain pattern is shown in Fig.
100. Such plates are generally sold at a square-inch price.

[Illustration: FIG. 100]

[Illustration: FIG. 101]

=81. Push Plates.=—On double-acting or single-acting doors, such as
storm and duplex doors, =push plates= are used to protect the woodwork
against soiling and wear from handling. These plates are made in
various sizes, and are either plain or ornamented to harmonize with
the other hardware. To obtain good results, push plates should be as
wide as the lock stile, where possible, and from 12 to 30 inches long,
according to conditions and use. Plates 20 inches or less in length
should be placed on the door so that the distance from the floor to
the center of the plate is about 4 feet 6 inches; for larger plates
the distance from the floor to the top of the plate should be 5 feet.
If used in connection with a cylinder dead lock, the plate should be
cut or drilled, preferably near the bottom, to allow the cylinder of
the lock to pass through the plate. The plain type of push plate is
illustrated in Fig. 101 (_a_), while one of more ornamental design is
shown at (_b_).

=82. Sign Plates.=—Although metallic plates with lettering are not
usually included in the hardware specifications, they find extensive
use in hotels, banks, and other public buildings. The inscriptions
available cover every possible demand, including titles of officers,
names of rooms, etc. Sign plates of various sizes can be procured in
the following finishes: Bronze, brass, or nickel with either sunken
or raised black letters; bronze or brass with black background or
matte; white porcelain plate with blue, red, or gilt letters; and blue
porcelain with white letters. Two typical sign plates are shown in Fig.
102.

[Illustration: FIG. 102]

=83. Door Stops and Holders.=—Since door checks and double-acting
doors have come into more extensive use, the necessity of holding doors
open has created a demand for _door stops_ and _holders_. The =door
stop= is a device for limiting the backward swing of a door. This
device may also be constructed so as to perform the additional function
of holding the door in an open position; it is then known as a =door
holder=.

[Illustration: FIG. 103]

The ordinary door stop is simply a wooden knob with rubber tip, or
ring, that may be fastened to the floor or a baseboard, and is usually
made up in the forms shown in Fig. 103. Better grades made of iron or
bronze are also available. These come in various shapes, as shown in
Fig. 104. Frequently, as shown at _a_, a hook for fastening the door in
an open position is combined with the door stop.

[Illustration: FIG. 104]

[Illustration: FIG. 105]

The door stop with the hook holdback is not always convenient to use,
so that the _automatic holdback_, or _door holder_ shown in Fig. 105
is sometimes employed. This holder can be disengaged by a pull on the
handle of the door and automatically catches the door in an entire open
position.

Where it is desired to hold a door in any position or to release it
quickly, the rubber-tipped holder shown in Fig. 106 should be used;
this device is easily operated and controlled by the foot.

[Illustration: FIG. 106]

[Illustration: FIG. 107]

=84. Chain Door Fastener.=—The type of =chain fastener= illustrated in
Fig. 107 is generally used on exterior residence doors. This device
allows the occupants to open the door partly without permitting
entrance. It consists of a heavy chain, one end of which is attached to
a plate, which in turn is fastened to the jamb with screws. The other
end of the chain carries a ball or a hook that may be inserted in the
slot of the long plate, which is attached to the door. By this means,
the door may be opened only slightly, until the ball of the chain is
released from the slot.

[Illustration: FIG. 108]

[Illustration: FIG. 109]

=85. Door Bolts.=—A large variety of =door bolts= is now on the market.
These bolts are made in all sizes, in wrought steel, cast iron, brass,
and bronze, and may be procured in any finish desired. The several
types of bolts used in common practice are illustrated in Figs. 108 and
109. In Fig. 108 (_a_) is shown a type of _barrel bolt_; at (_b_) is
shown what is known as a _cased bolt_; and at (_c_) is shown a _necked
bolt_. Fig. 109 (_a_) shows a _spring bolt_, (_b_) a _spring-necked
bolt_, and (_c_) a type of _shutter bolt_. Various types of _mortise
bolts_ are illustrated in Fig. 110.

[Illustration: FIG. 110]

[Illustration: FIG. 111]

[Illustration: FIG. 112]

[Illustration: FIG. 113]

[Illustration: FIG. 114]

=86. Chain Bolts and Foot-Bolts.=—A type of rim bolt used chiefly to
secure the standing leaf of double doors is shown in Fig. 111. These
bolts are made in various sizes, finishes, and grades, and in both
plain and ornamental design. In the figure, the =chain bolt= is shown
at (_a_), while the =foot-bolt= is illustrated at (_b_).

=87. Flush Bolts.=—Bolts that are intended to perform the same function
as chain bolts and foot-bolts, but are sunk into the stile of the door
flush with its surface or edge, are known as =flush bolts=. These
bolts, which are illustrated in Figs. 112 and 113, are made in various
styles, grades, and finishes, from the smaller kinds for cabinet
purposes to the large, double-mortise extension bolt. A flush bolt with
a knob is shown in Fig. 114, while a _heavy_, =T=-_handle extension
bolt_ is shown in Fig. 115.

[Illustration: FIG. 115]

=88. Door Springs and Checks.=—During recent years considerable
improvement has been noticeable in the construction of the devices
known as =door springs= and =checks=. Formerly, the common =torsion
rod= and =coil springs=, which are illustrated in Fig. 116, at
(_a_) and (_b_), respectively, were the only articles of this kind
available. These devices have been in extensive use for many years,
and have performed the work of closing the door, but not without the
unnecessary bang and slam made by the door when striking the jambs.
This was overcome to some extent, however, by the introduction of the
=air-check=, which depends on the use of an air cushion to resist the
force of the spring. In effect, each check is a small air pump.

Prominent among the older type of air-checks is the _Eclipse_ made
by Sargent & Co. This check is clearly illustrated in Fig. 117. At
(_a_) and (_b_) are shown two methods of applying the _Eclipse_
air-checks. In (_a_), the spring-check that closes the door is shown
at _a_ attached to the door, while its lever-arm is fastened to the
door casing. The cylinder _b_ is also secured to the door, and the
piston _c_, operating in the cylinder, is applied to the door casing.
At (_b_), the parts are differently arranged. The spring-check occupies
the same relative position as shown in (_a_), its lever-arm being
shown at _a_, while the piston _c_ is fastened to the door and the
cylinder _b_ affixed to the head-jamb of the door frame. Either method
is adapted for inside doors, but that shown at (_b_) is preferable for
doors opening outwards, on account of fewer parts being exposed; the
spring-check and its lever-arms, in this case, being the only parts
exposed to the weather. In construction these checks consist of a
cylinder _b_ with a polished interior, in which works the piston _c_.
On the end of the piston there is provided a cup made of leather that
has previously been soaked in oil. By the insertion of the piston into
the cylinder as the door closes, there is a tendency to compress the
air in the cylinder, thus forming an air cushion with air outlet at the
caps. These outlets can be regulated by turning, or screwing, the cap
to the right or the left, as the case may require.

[Illustration: FIG. 116]

[Illustration: FIG. 117]

Devices of this kind, however, did not prove satisfactory until the
introduction of the _Yale-Blount_, or _hydraulic, combined_ _spring and
check_, which is shown in Fig. 118. In this device, the coil spring
_a_, shown in (_b_), is enclosed in the vertical portion of the check,
the regulating of the tension being accomplished by turning the ratchet
sleeve _b_ with a wrench made for that purpose. The check enclosed
in the horizontal part consists of a metallic piston _c_, without
packing, that moves in a tightly sealed metallic cylinder containing
a lubricating and non-freezing liquid. The movement of the door in
closing depends on the escape of the liquid through a by-pass from one
end of the cylinder to the center, this by-pass being controlled by a
small valve that may be readily adjusted to produce any desired action
of the door and thus permit the door to be closed silently, with a
smooth, steady motion, and without rebound. Since the introduction of
the Yale-Blount type of check and spring combined, other manufacturers
are making similar styles, the most prominent being the _Bardsley_, the
_Corbin_, the _Sargent_, and the _Ogden_.

[Illustration: FIG. 118]

=89. Sliding-Door Hangers and Track.=—The first sliding-doors were
usually carried on sheaves, or rollers, located at the bottom of a
door, these rollers traveling on a metal track, which was either
inserted in the floor or placed on its surface. This system, however,
has been displaced by the more modern =sliding-door hanger=, which
suspends the door from the top. The carriers containing the rollers,
or wheels, run on an overhead track placed in a recess formed for that
purpose above the soffit of the doorway.

The use of the overhead hanger requires a special construction of the
head-jamb, not only to provide space for the overhead track, but also
to furnish proper support for the brackets securing the same. It is
therefore a good plan to determine in advance the type of hanger to be
used, in order that the framing and other details of the doorway may be
made to conform to it. The most important features to be considered in
the selection of sliding-door hangers are the strength and stiffness of
track, the provision for adjusting and reducing friction and noise, the
strength and quality of the several parts, and the facility with which
these parts can be fitted in place and adjusted when in use.

In order to overcome noise, the original overhead hanger was made with
wooden track, which was placed on each side of the recess. On this
track rolled the wheels in pairs, being generally riveted to an axle
and having a space between them. The frame of the hanger traveled on
the axle from end to end, to overcome friction, the adjustment being
only in the hanger frame. Of this type of door hanger, the _Prindle_,
the _Stearns_, the _Warner_, the _Ives_, and the _Richards_ were the
most widely used. The Ives improved wooden-track, house-door hanger is
illustrated in Fig. 119.

[Illustration: FIG. 119]

Another form of sliding-door hanger, which is considered an improvement
over the type just described, consists of the single or side
steel-track hanger of the Lane or the Richards make. These sliding-door
hangers are constructed entirely of steel, and the hanger proper has
frictionless bearings, on the principle of the wooden-track hangers,
but with one wheel to each hanger, running on a steel track fastened to
one side of the recess. This combination is quite an improvement over
the old-style hanger, and can be placed in position more readily. The
wheels of these hangers, as shown in Fig. 120, are constructed of two
plates of steel, between which is placed a fiber wheel that is held
in position by through rivets. The fiber portion of the wheel comes
in contact with the track, while the plates act only as flanges, thus
tending to reduce the noise caused by the operation of the door.

[Illustration: FIG. 120]

[Illustration: FIG. 121]

The hangers most extensively used at present are the =trolley type=, of
which the _Coburn_ is the original and the best of the various kinds.
The track, a typical section of which is shown in Fig. 121, is made
of sheet steel, which is bent or folded into various forms, depending
on the particular make. The carrier is contained in the interior of
the track. The several features of this type of track and hanger are
illustrated in Figs. 122, 123, and 124, which likewise show the method
of attachment and the detail construction of the door head, or soffit,
necessary to receive these tracks and hangers.

This type of sliding-door trolley track is also sometimes lined with
wood placed in the steel trough, or track, as shown in Fig. 125. This
makes the device absolutely noiseless, although the regular types
operate with very little noise. Besides the Coburn trolley and track,
there are the _Richard_ and the _McCabe_. Both of these makes possess
merit. The trolleys, or carriers, are constructed with both fiber and
iron wheels, with ball bearings, running on a wooden or metal track,
according to the type.

[Illustration: FIG. 122]

[Illustration: FIG. 123]

[Illustration: FIG. 124]

[Illustration: FIG. 125]

[Illustration: FIG. 126]

This type of hanger and track is made in all sizes, from the smallest,
for hanging small bookcase doors, up to the very largest, for warehouse
doors. As shown in Fig. 126, trolley hangers are made for doors of
special design, such as accordion and parallel doors used to close up
large openings. They are also made for elevator doors, freight-car
doors, barn doors, and automatic fire-doors, with special construction
to suit the various purposes.

[Illustration: FIG. 127]

In factory and similar buildings, it frequently happens that one
portion must be separated from another by brick fire-walls and that
the openings in these walls have to be closed with tin-covered doors
as required by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, the object
being to reduce the fire hazard. Wherever possible, these doors are
made sliding and arranged so as to close automatically, being hung
on a slanting track with an incline of ¾ inch to the foot, and also
counterbalanced with weights so that the door will stand at any point,
as shown in Fig. 127. The cord or rope attached to the weights passes
over a pulley and is attached to the door with a fusible link, as at
_a_, which, in case of fire gives way and allows the door to close
automatically.

The doors are usually constructed of seasoned white pine or similar
non-resinous wood, using three thicknesses of ⅞-inch matched boards,
the outside layers to be vertical and inner layers horizontal and
thoroughly fastened together with wrought-iron clinch nails, driven in
flush and well clinched. The doors are then covered with 14" × 20" IC
bright charcoal tin plates of not less than 107 pounds to a box of 112
sheets. All joints are locked ½ inch, without soldering, and nailed
under the seams.

The track for these doors is best made of round-edge bar iron or tire
steel, ⅜ in. × 3½ in., being bolted to the wall with through bolts
having nut and flanged washer on the opposite side, and held from the
wall by cast-iron track brackets. The hangers are of wrought iron, ⅜
in. × 3½ in., provided with roller-bearing wheels and are attached to
the door with at least two bolts. The binders are of wrought metal, ⅜
in. × 3½ in., with angle flange at back end to notch in the wall and so
arranged as to grip and force the door against the wall when closed. In
connection with this, a wedge is placed at the end of the lower chafing
strip, and, when the door is closed, engages with the stay roll so
that the door will be held close to the wall on the opposite side. Two
chafing strips of ¾-inch, half-oval metal are placed on back of door
with 1" × ⅛" flat strips of same length in front and bolted through the
door. Bumper shoes are also used to prevent the binders from mutilating
or damaging the tin covering at the points that strike the binders.

=90. Door Knockers.=—Although the medieval =door knockers= have
been replaced by the modern door and electric bell, they are still
used occasionally for decorative purposes, and, when required, they
should be selected and specified with the finishing hardware. Door
knockers are made in various styles, sizes, and finishes—in iron,
brass, or bronze—to match the several designs expressed in hardware.
The elaborateness of the designs of this somewhat ornamental piece of
hardware is shown in Fig. 128.

[Illustration: FIG. 128]

[Illustration: FIG. 129]

=91. Water-Closet Door Trim.=—The construction of water closets in
public buildings has brought forth special hardware to meet the various
conditions of convenience, simplicity, and hard usage. In ordinary
work, the doors of water-closet compartments are secured with a hook
or a barrel bolt, while in the better class of work, as in hotels and
public places of this character, mortised thumb or knob bolts or,
better, indicator bolts are used.

=Indicator bolts=, as shown in Fig. 129, made both mortise and rim,
are available for water-closet doors. In either case, the bolts are
mortised into or placed on the inside of the door with the indicator
case on the outside. The indicator dial has a spindle on the back, and
this engages with the knob that operates the bolt. When the bolt is
thrown, the indicator shows the word “Engaged,” and when turned back,
the word “Open” appears.

[Illustration: FIG. 130]

A simple form of fastening for water-closet doors is shown in Fig.
130, which illustrates the flush, or half-mortise, knob bolt at (_a_),
and the water-closet rim latch at (_b_). The rim slide bolt is also
used for securing water-closet doors. All of these bolts are available
for wooden partitions, and may be had for marble or slate work, when
special strikes and bolts for fastening will be required.

Jamb door stops are seldom required for water-closet doors hung to
wooden partitions, but when needed there is to be had a simple stop
with a rubber tip that will answer all purposes. Where stops are
required for doors hung to marble partitions the type shown in Fig.
131 may be used. This stop has a clamp device that is attached to the
marble slab by bolts and it will be observed forms a combination stop
and strike for the latch or bolt.

[Illustration: FIG. 131]

[Illustration: FIG. 132]

Other water-closet specialties, which are not illustrated here but
which are sometimes specified under hardware, are: Coat-and-hat hooks,
cigar holders, cigar and paper holders combined, and toilet-paper
holders. Each can be procured to secure to either wood or marble, as
required.

=92. Screen-Door Latches.=—There is a light latch manufactured, either
rim or mortise, for use on screen doors. It consists of a knob latch
similar to a mortise latch or cupboard turn, but in addition to a hub,
as in the former, it is furnished with a spindle and a pair of knobs,
or lever handles. Latches for screen doors are also constructed with
“stop-work,” so that they cannot be operated from the outside except by
the means of a key. This latter latch is generally of the mortise type,
having escutcheons on both sides.

=93. Elevator Latches.=—Locks or latches for use on doors of elevator
shafts are usually operated by a key from the outside and by a flush
lever handle from the inside. The latch illustrated in Fig. 132
consists of a pivoted arm with a hook at its end to engage with a
strike on the jamb. This type of latch is the one generally employed.

[Illustration: FIG. 133]

=94. Secret Gate Latch.=—In Fig. 133 is shown a =secret gate latch=,
which is used for office gates. Latches of this kind may be had in
either the rim or the mortise type. They usually consist of a spring
bolt that cannot be operated except by a concealed button or similar
device. In the type of latch shown in the figure, the concealed button
that controls the latch is located on the lower edge. The knob shown is
fixed and does not operate the latch.

=95. Ornamental Nails and Studs.=—Although the constructive necessity
for =ornamental studs= and =nail heads= has disappeared under modern
methods of wooden construction, they are still used for purposes of
decoration, and a great variety may be had. Several stock designs are
illustrated in Fig. 134. These nails and studs are made of various
metals and in many finishes, having a projecting spur on the back
that, when driven into the wood, firmly attaches the ornamental head
in place. They contribute effectively to the decoration of important
doors, especially extension doors of churches and public buildings.

=96. Hand and Bevel of Doors.=—Many locks and butts used at the present
time are made _reversible_; that is, they can be used for either right-
or left-hand doors. Others are not, and must therefore be specified
as _right-hand_ or _left-hand_. In this latter class are included
loose-joint butts and most locks, the operation of which is different
on one side than on the other. All locks with beveled fronts are not
reversible, and their use should be avoided where no real need of them
exists.

A =reversible lock= is one having a beveled latch bolt that can be
turned over, or reversed, at will, to make its bevel face the opposite
direction. This is usually accomplished by removing the cap of the lock
and turning over the latch bolt.

[Illustration: FIG. 134]

In order that hardware may be ordered intelligently, the _hand_
and _bevel_ of the door should be given where the hardware is not
interchangeable, or reversible. Rules to determine the hand of doors
have, therefore, been established by the manufacturers of hardware, so
that the information may be founded on a uniform basis. Reference to
Fig. 135 will materially assist in the interpretation of these rules.

[Illustration: CUPBOARD AND CELL LOCKS FIG. 135]

1. The =hand= of a door is always determined from the outside.

2. The =outside= is the street side of an entrance door, the corridor
side of a room door, and the room side of a closet door. The outside of
a communicating door, from room to room, is the side from which, when
the door is closed, the butts are not visible. The outside of a pair
of twin doors is the space between them. This rule applies to
sliding-doors as well as hinged doors.

3. If, on standing outside of a door, the butts are on the right, it is
a _right-hand door_; if on the left, it is a _left-hand door_.

4. If, on standing outside, the door opens from you, or inwards, it
takes a lock with _regular_ bevel bolt; if it opens outwards, it takes
a lock with _reverse_ bevel bolt.

5. A door is =beveled= when its edge is not at a right angle with its
surface, and in this case the front of a mortise lock must be beveled
to correspond. This bevel is expressed by stating the thickness of door
and the distance that one edge drops back of the other. The standard
bevel is ⅛ inch in 2¼ inches, as shown in Fig. 136.

[Illustration: FIG. 136]

6. The =bevel of a lock= is a term used both with mortise and rim
locks to indicate the direction in which the bevel of the latch bolt
is inclined. If inclined outwards, as for doors opening inwards, it
is a _regular bevel bolt_; if inclined inwards, as for doors opening
outwards, it is a _reverse bevel bolt_ (except as to cabinet locks,
which, being commonly used on doors opening outwards, are regularly
made with reverse bevel bolts, unless otherwise specified).

Mortise locks used with double doors having either rabbeted or
astragal joints, must have fronts of corresponding sectional form.
To avoid the extra cost of special patterns, the edges, or joints, of
such doors should conform to established lock standards. The standard
rabbet, or step, in the edge of doors is ½ inch, and the standard
astragal joint has a ¾-inch bead.

The proper bevel of a door, if any is needed, is determined by the size
of butt and the width of the door, as shown in Fig. 137. The inner
corner of the door travels on a radius with the center at the center
of the pin of the butt, and must have a clearance to swing free of the
jamb casing. This may be obtained by beveling the edge of the door, or,
if its edge is left square, by leaving sufficient clearance between
the door and its jamb. If the door is of fair width and the butt does
not need to be very wide to clear the trim, it will be found that a
square edge may be used without resorting to an unduly open joint, thus
permitting the use of locks with regular front; that is, not beveled.

[Illustration: FIG. 137]

SHUTTER HARDWARE

=97. Shutter Fasteners, or Adjusters.=—The most convenient fastener for
shutters, or blinds, is the _Zimmerman_, or _Walling, type_, as shown
in Fig. 138. These fasteners or adjusters secure the shutter in the
closed, the open, and several intermediate positions, and are made both
japanned and galvanized. They can be used with all styles of hinges,
although they are generally combined with regular butts or with the New
York blind hinge.

[Illustration: FIG. 138]

[Illustration: FIG. 139]

=98. Shutter Rings.=—In Fig. 139 is shown a =shutter ring=. Rings
should always be used on solid shutters to close them; the shutter
being solid, furnishes in itself no edge which can be clasped in
closing, which is not the case with slatted blinds. These shutter rings
are tinned or galvanized to prevent rusting, although they may also
be obtained japanned. A better type of shutter ring is that having an
eye riveted to a plate, which in turn is attached to the shutter with
several screws.

=99. Shutter Bolts.=—Bolts are used for securing both slatted and solid
shutters, but are chiefly intended for the solid shutter, which is used
for protection. Shutter bolts are made of wrought steel in various
sizes, from 6 to 16 inches long, and are to be had either japanned or
galvanized. While the same shutter bolts are used on slatted blinds for
keeping the blinds in a closed position, they afford little protection,
as they can usually be operated through the slats. Common types of
shutter bolts are illustrated in Fig. 140. At (_a_) is shown the
ordinary wrought-steel shutter bolt, while the one shown at (_b_) is
practically the same bolt with a lock attachment at _a_.

=100. Shutter Workers.=—The =shutter worker= known as the _Mallory_ is
an exceptionally good article for hanging shutters. The lower hinge is
made in box form, enclosing the gear necessary to operate the blind; a
square shaft connects this with a lever handle, or crank, fastened to
the casing inside the building, thus allowing the user to operate the
shutter from the inside without opening the sash or screen. The cog
gearing in the lower hinge will hold the shutter in the closed, the
open, or any desired intermediate position without the use of any other
device.

[Illustration: FIG. 140]

=101. Turnbuckles.=—The device shown in Fig. 141 is known as a
=turnbuckle=; it is employed for fastening shutters in an open position
against a building. Turnbuckles are made of cast-iron or of wrought
steel, and for use on either frame or brick buildings. They may be used
in connection with all styles of hinges, and are generally employed on
buildings that are exposed to exceedingly strong winds.

[Illustration: FIG. 141]

CABINET TRIM

=102. Hinge Butts and Hinges.=—For cabinetwork, small, light hinge
butts are used. These may be obtained in either bronze or steel, with
or without ball tips, and in various sizes. The steel butts of this
type are more commonly used, as they can be procured in all finishes,
but for high-grade work, bronze metal is always employed. The usual
type of cabinet hinge butt is illustrated in Fig. 142.

[Illustration: FIG. 142]

[Illustration: FIG. 143]

A surface hinge is sometimes used in place of a butt, in order to
eliminate the fitting to the woodwork that is necessary where butts are
used.

=103. Cupboard Latches.=—A convenient fastening for cupboard doors,
consisting of a pivoted latch actuated by a projecting knob, is shown
in Fig. 143. This type of latch is furnished with two forms of strikes,
one for application on the edge and the other for application on the
surface of the jamb or door.

This figure shows a stock sample of this type of latch, but the student
should carefully note that whenever possible such garish or gaudy
ornament should always be avoided in all classes of hardware. Good
taste is always better satisfied with simple and direct treatment as
shown in Fig. 144; but where ornate styles are adopted, the character
of the ornament should be artistically expressed as exemplified in
Figs. 128, 134, 153, 155, 157, etc.

[Illustration: FIG. 144]

=104. Cupboard Catches.=—The =cupboard catch= differs from the cupboard
latch just described, although it is intended for the same purpose. The
usual cupboard catch consists of a spring bolt that is operated by a
slide knob. It is made in various designs, sizes, and shapes, in both
the rim and flush varieties. Figs. 144 and 145 show several types of
cupboard catches.

[Illustration: FIG. 145]

=105. Cupboard Turn.=—There is a piece of hardware intended for the
same purpose as the cupboard catch, known as the =cupboard turn=. It is
operated by a rotating knob instead of the slide, and is considered the
best rim article used for this purpose.

=106. Cupboard Buttons.=—The =cupboard button= is an old device, but is
little used at the present time, except for the cheapest work. Various
types of these buttons are illustrated in Fig. 146. They are made with
or without plates, as shown, and may be had in either iron or brass.

[Illustration: FIG. 146]

=107. Elbow Catches.=—A convenient fastening that is in quite general
use for the standing leaf of double doors is illustrated in Fig. 147,
from which the operation may readily be understood. This device, which
is commonly known as an =elbow catch=, fastens the doors automatically;
it is easily operated in opening the doors, and thus does away with
the old-style hook and eye. The strike of the catch should be placed
beneath the shelf where possible, using the catch inverted.

[Illustration: FIG. 147]

[Illustration: FIG. 148]

=108. Bookcase Bolt.=—The =bookcase bolt=, shown in Fig. 148, is
an automatic fastening device that is mortised into the soffit of
cabinets or bookcases having double doors. It is arranged in such a
position as to engage with the top of one door, and is operated by the
act of closing the other door, which carries the lock, so that both
doors are fastened or released by a single action.

[Illustration: FIG. 149]

=109. Lever Cupboard Catches.=—Another piece of hardware used for
securing light doors, or leaves, such as are used in cupboards,
bookcases, and wardrobes, is illustrated in Fig. 149. This fastening
is very simple and convenient. It consists of a bar that is pivoted to
a plate and extends through the door, its inner end being hooked to
engage with a strike.

[Illustration: FIG. 150]

[Illustration: FIG. 151]

=110. Drawer Pulls.=—The =drawer pull= is a familiar article of
cupboard hardware, the usual type being illustrated in Fig. 150. This
article can be obtained in iron, steel, brass, or bronze, in various
styles and shapes, and in all finishes. Drawer pulls with _label
plates_ are extensively used. A type of this drawer pull is shown in
Fig. 151.

=111. Drop Drawer Pulls.=—For cabinetwork, the =drop drawer pull=, as
illustrated in Fig. 152 (_a_), is used almost entirely. The drop pull
is made both plain and ornamented, examples of each style being shown
in Figs. 152 (_a_) and (_b_) and 153.

[Illustration: FIG. 152]

[Illustration: FIG. 153]

[Illustration: FIG. 154]

=112. Cabinet Locks.=—The type of lock illustrated in Fig. 154 is
used on cabinetwork of every description, and can be procured for
all classes of construction. These locks are made in rim, flush, and
mortise styles, with keys having either plain or ornamental bows.

=113. Cabinet Escutcheons.=—In order to form a finish and protect the
woodwork near the keyhole, the =cabinet escutcheon plate= is used.
These plates are made in various sizes and styles of ornamentation,
some designs of which are illustrated in Fig. 155.

[Illustration: FIG. 155]

=114. Card Frames, or Label Plates.=—An article known as the =card
frame=, or =label plate=, is used extensively to placard drawers or
cupboards to designate their contents. These plates are made in various
sizes, and may be procured in bronze and iron and in the usual patterns
shown in Fig. 156.

[Illustration: FIG. 156]

=115. Hinge and Corner Plates.=—The =hinge= and =corner plate= is an
article used solely for decorative purposes on cabinetwork. The variety
of designs and sizes now available is such that special patterns are
rarely necessary. These plates may be obtained from the hardware dealer
in all of the usual metals and in all finishes.

DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION OF HARDWARE FOR BUILDINGS

HARDWARE OF SPECIAL DESIGN

=116. Proprietary Hardware.=—The manufacturers of hardware have
assembled an extensive collection of standard designs in the various
styles of ornament, from which fitting selections can be made for
almost every use without danger of repetition and without fear that the
design selected may become hackneyed by too general use. Therefore,
before incurring the great expense entailed by the adoption of special
designs, it is advisable that a careful examination of catalog designs
be made. Where, however, it is decided to adopt some special design,
the facilities of the manufacturer can be effectively utilized to
secure the best results at the least cost and with the minimum amount
of trouble to the architect or the owner.

Of all of the subordinate elements of interior decoration, there is
none that offers a larger opportunity for effective results and for
the exercise of personal taste than the metal work of the hardware
for doors and windows, whether elaborate and costly, or simple and
inexpensive. The knobs, plates, and hinges of a door compel attention
by the prominence of their position. If they are inappropriate and
unpleasing, they obtrude, while if artistic and in harmony with their
surroundings, they attract and provide a finish unobtainable in other
ways.

The impress of individuality marks all of the important work of the
successful architect, and may be extended properly to the subordinate
details of decoration, especially where it is essential that these
harmonize with the general scheme. Hence, in some cases, the architect
furnishes the designs for the hardware to correspond with the
architectural treatment of the building. As, in the case of emblematic
hardware, these individual designs involve the additional expense of
special drawings, models, and patterns, the plan is seldom resorted to,
except where the question of cost is subordinate to that of perfection
of result.

=117.= For many years hardware has been generally regarded as an
indifferent detail that could be safely left to the carpenter
contractor to select and supply. Even when specified, it has been
usually described in a very loose and vague manner, doubtless owing
to the technical character of the information required and the
difficulty entailed on a busy architect in obtaining and formulating
it for use. Where, therefore, the conditions are such that an exact
and carefully detailed hardware specification cannot be prepared, the
only satisfactory plan is to exclude the finishing hardware from the
specifications prepared for the building and reserve it for selection
by the architect and the owner.

=118. Emblematic Hardware.=—Occasionally, it is found desirable to
indicate the character or use of a building by introducing one or
more appropriate emblems in the design or ornament of the hardware.
This is especially true of structures for lodges, clubs, societies,
and other organizations, in which case the emblems of regalia, badges,
etc. are available for the motif of the design. In municipal, state,
or government buildings, the coat of arms or public seal may be
introduced in decorating the hardware, and in buildings for railroad
companies, banks, etc., the monogram, seal, or name of the corporation
is frequently reproduced.

[Illustration: FIG. 157]

In all instances, the device selected is usually introduced as the
central ornament of the door knob. This ornament is also repeated on
escutcheon and push plates, and generally on the larger pieces of metal
work; and while it may constitute the sole feature of decoration, it
usually has associated with it a border or other ornament.

[Illustration: FIG. 158]

The use of emblematic hardware involves the use of special designs and
patterns, and thus entails a considerably greater cost than the use of
standard patterns. In Fig. 157 are shown several standard ornamental
designs, while in Fig. 158 are shown pieces of lock trim ornamented
with heraldic, or emblematic, designs.

HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS

=119.= The methods of specifying builders’ hardware differ
considerably. Some architects generalize and use the same form of
specification for buildings of all classes, while others are more
specific, and itemize all the hardware for the entire operation,
giving, besides the description, the catalog number and finish.

The first method is not considered good practice, and, though it
involves little work on the part of the architect, it rarely produces
the best results. Thus, wherever possible, the specification should
be complete and comprehensive, giving a full description of all the
hardware in the building.

=120.= Formerly, builders’ hardware could only be obtained in a
few styles, and there was not much choice regarding its physical
construction and mechanical operation, so that its selection could be
left to the contractor or builder. Specification, therefore, usually
included little more than a mere statement that the necessary hardware
should be furnished and that it should be of good quality.

In recent years, however, the revolution accomplished in the designing
and making of builders’ hardware has elevated it to an important
place in decorative art, and, simultaneously, the creating of new and
higher mechanical grades has radically changed the requirements in
specifications relating to this subject.

=121.= A few standard forms of hardware specifications that should
secure good results will now be considered. For convenience of
reference, these several forms are marked I, II, and III. The first two
forms are probably as good general forms of hardware specifications as
can be written, but, while they answer the purpose in some instances,
they should not be used where it is intended to have the general
contract include all the hardware, or where it is possible to prepare
an itemized specification such as that given in Form III. The numbering
of the paragraphs in these forms is continuous with this Section, but
in practice they generally start with 1.

FORM I

(SEE GENERAL CONDITIONS)

=NOTE.=—Under the head of _General Conditions_ preceding all
specifications furnished to contractors by the architect, a series of
binding requirements, reservations, and stipulations are specifically
stated, and it is most essential that the contractor carefully peruse
them, as he is bound by them as well as by the clauses under the
heading of Hardware Specifications.

=122. Rough Hardware.=—Provide all the rough hardware, such as nails,
screws, sash weights, pulleys, chain or cord, anchors, screw bolts, and
all other material in this line necessary for the completion of the
operation.

=123. Finishing, or Builders’, Hardware.=—All fastenings and metal
trimmings used on doors, windows, transoms, closets, cabinets,
pantries, etc. will be furnished by the owner and delivered at the
building in the quantities and at the times reasonably needed by
the contractor, he to apply the same under the direction and to the
satisfaction of the architect.

The contractor is to be responsible for all hardware after delivery and
until the completion of the building. He shall hang all doors, properly
fit all locks, etc., and return them to their original packages until
after completion of the painting or finishing, when he shall place them
permanently. All knobs shall be covered with Canton flannel, to protect
them from injury, and all keys are to be cared for until the building
is delivered to the owner. The contractor shall place all keys in their
locks or deliver them to the architect with tags attached, indicating
where they belong.

The contractor shall furnish the manufacturer or dealer furnishing the
hardware with details of woodwork or information that may be necessary
in order to understand the requirements and to harmonize the hardware
with the cabinetwork, and, where interferences are discovered, to have
them adjusted before the hardware is delivered.

FORM II

(SEE GENERAL CONDITIONS)

=124. Rough Hardware.=—Same as in Form I.

=125. Finishing, or Builders’, Hardware.=—The contractor shall include
in his estimate the sum of _____ dollars ($____) for the purchase
of the finishing hardware, which is to be selected by the architect
or owner and charged to the contractor. If the hardware costs less
than the stipulated amount, the difference shall be deducted from his
contract price; if it costs more than herein contemplated, the owner
will pay to the contractor the additional amount.

The above hardware is to include all fastenings and metal trimmings
used on doors, windows, transoms, closets, cabinets, pantries, etc.,
and will be delivered at the building in the quantities and at the
times reasonably required by the contractor, he to apply the same under
the direction and to the satisfaction of the architect.

FORM III

(SEE GENERAL CONDITIONS)

=126. Front-Entrance Doors.=—Provide for the front-entrance doors,
cylinder, mortise, front-door lock and three 5" × 5" loose-pin,
ball-tip butts for each door; also flush extension bolts 12 inches and
24 inches long.

=127. Vestibule Doors.=—Provide for the vestibule doors, cylinder,
vestibule latch, keyed similar to the front door, and three 5" × 5"
loose-pin, ball-tip butts; also flush bolts, the same as specified for
entrance doors.

128. SIDE-ENTRANCE AND REAR DOORS.—Provide for the side-entrance
and rear doors, locks and butts the same as specified for the
front-entrance doors. Exterior basement and kitchen doors to have
5-inch, three-bolt or 4¼-inch, three-tumbler lock and mortise bolt;
also three 4½" × 4½" butts for each door.

=129. Sliding Doors.=—Provide for all sliding-doors, Coburn trolley
hangers; double doors to have locks with astragal fronts, and single
doors to have flat-front locks.

=130. Double-Acting Doors.=—Provide for the doors where indicated
double-acting in the plans, Bommer spring hinges or floor pivots of
suitable size; also push plates, door holders, dead lock, and kick
plates.

=131. Miscellaneous Doors.=—Provide for all other doors on first floor,
4¼-inch mortise lock with metal knobs and combined escutcheons; also
three 4" × 4" loose-pin, ball-tipped butts for each door.

=132. Doors on Second Floor.=—Provide for all the doors on the second
floor, 4¼-inch mortise locks with metal knobs and combined escutcheons;
chamber-entrance and bathroom doors to have in addition a mortise bolt.
Also provide for these doors, three 4" × 4" loose-pin, ball-tipped
butts for each door.

=133. Doors in Attic and Basement.=—Provide for the doors in attic and
basement, 3½-inch mortise locks, pottery knobs, and escutcheons; also
two 3½" × 3½" butts for each door.

=134. Transoms.=—All transoms throughout are to be hinged at the top
or the bottom or pivoted (as indicated in the plans), and are to have
⁵/₁₆-inch transom lifts to extend to within 5 feet of the floor.

=135. Double-Hung Windows.=—The double-hung windows on the first floor
are to have approved sash locks and two flush lifts; those on the
second floor, in the attic, and in the basement are to have approved
sash locks and two flush or hook lifts to each sash. All window stops
are to be secured with flush adjusting stop-screws placed not more than
14 inches apart.

=136. Casement Windows and Hinged Sash.=—Provide for the casement in
the lavatory and on the second floor, 3" × 3" tight-joint butts and
suitable casement fasteners and adjusters. The basement sash are to be
hinged at the top with wrought butts and are to have bolts and hooks
and eyes to hold them open.

=137. French Windows.=—Provide for the French windows in the dining
room, 4" × 4" butts, three to each window sash. Also provide for these
windows, flush bolts, 12 inches and 24 inches on standing leaf, and
mortise turnbuckles.[1]

[1] In place of the mortise turnbuckle any of the following hardware
can be used: Casement fasts or locks; Cremorne bolts, locking top,
bottom, and center; or, Espagnolette bars, either rim or mortise.

=138. Bookcases and China Closets.=—Provide for the doors of the
bookcases and china closets, 3" × 3" ball-tip butts, two to each door;
also locks and keyplates or mortise latches and knobs, and bolts for
double doors. All drawers to have drop drawer pulls, two to each drawer
over 20 inches wide.

=139. Pantries, Dressers, and Linen Closets.=—The doors of the
pantries, dressers, and linen closets are to be provided with 3" × 3"
butts, together with elbow catches or surface bolts for double doors.
Also provide rim cupboard catches or mortise latches with knobs. All
drawers over 20 inches wide are to have two drawer pulls. Flour bins
are to be hinged at the side or at the bottom, so as to tilt, and
are to be supplied with 3" × 3" wrought butts and bar pull or with
large =T=-handled cupboard turn. Place in each closet one (or two)
rows of brass-plated wire coat-and-hat hooks (or, bronze-plated cast
coat-and-hat hooks) to extend around all sides; these hooks are to
be placed not over 12 inches nor closer than 8 inches apart. Furnish
rubber-tipped, wooden-base knobs for all doors.

=140. Quality and Finish.=—All of the above hardware is to be of Blank
& Co.’s manufacture, except butts for interior doors, which are to be
the Stanley Work product. All the hardware on the first floor, except
kitchen and service portion, is to be plain, cast-bronze metal of the
design known as ____, and ____ finish. The hardware of the second floor
is to be of steel, in plain design and ____ finish. The hardware of
the bathroom is to be of plain bronze metal, nickel-plated, while the
basement, kitchen, and attic hardware is to be plain steel in ____
finish.

=141. Miscellaneous Hardware.=—The contractor shall furnish and apply
all hardware necessary to complete the building, under the direction
and subject to the approval of the architect.

=142.= The preceding specification is intended to meet the requirements
of a residence, but may be changed so as to apply to other buildings by
adding to the several items or by omitting some of them. In following
the specifications just given, the specification writer should exercise
great care in selecting the hardware required, using the best that can
be obtained with the money to be expended. In all instances, the name,
design, quality, and finish desired should be stipulated.

SELECTION, ESTIMATION, AND APPLICATION OF HARDWARE

=143.= No other material entering into the construction of a building
will pay a larger return in satisfaction, comfort, and permanent
economy for the time and care devoted to its selection than the
finishing hardware. The range of choice and quality has become too
great for the selection to be left to the general contractor under an
omnibus specification, and the practice of according to it the benefit
of careful and discriminating selection by the architect or client, or
both in consultation, is rapidly becoming general. Hardware has become
a factor of utmost importance in the interior decorative scheme of the
modern building, and its selection demands at least the care accorded
to other elements of interior decoration.

The method that should be employed in the selection and purchase of
hardware depends primarily on the existing conditions. If the building
is intended for the purpose of sale or renting, or if cheapness is
the dominating factor, then a competitive method may be expedient;
but if the client intends it for personal occupancy or for permanent
ownership, then competitive bidding is sometimes not productive of the
best results.

In all cases, a preliminary examination should be made of the makes
and grades of the commercial hardware available, and the amount that
it is desired to expend on this item should be decided on. The process
of selection is greatly facilitated by the elimination of articles
outside of the grades selected. When the maker’s grade of goods has
been decided on, the next step is to select in detail the articles,
designs, and finishes to be used in each room, floor, or division of
the building, making such notes of the decisions so reached as will be
convenient in framing the hardware specification, or schedule.

=144. Allowance for Finishing Hardware.=—Architects are constantly
called on to prepare preliminary estimates on proposed buildings, to
assist clients to determine whether they can afford to build. For
this purpose, the architect possesses an approximate knowledge of the
cost of excavation, masonry, woodwork, etc., so that the necessary
expenditure may be computed with a fair degree of accuracy. Builders’
hardware, however, does not readily admit of accurate preliminary
estimating, and in many cases the architect merely specifies the sum
to be expended for finishing hardware, stating that selections are to
be made by himself or his client later, as the work progresses. This
system is found in many instances to be satisfactory to all—architect,
client, and builder.

The cost of the hardware usually bears a fairly constant ratio to
the total cost of various types of buildings. The following figures,
which are based on experience, indicate the range in this ratio under
ordinary conditions. This schedule gives the ratio of cost of finishing
hardware to the total cost of the building, land excluded.

TYPE OF BUILDING PER CENT.

Hotels, large 1.00 to 1.5
Hotels, small 1.50 to 2.0
Apartment houses 1.50 to 2.0
Office buildings 1.00 to 2.0
Office buildings, fireproof .50 to 1.5
Public buildings 1.50 to 2.0
Libraries .75 to 1.5
Hospitals .50 to 1.0
Residences, city 1.50 to 3.0
Residences, country 2.00 to 4.0

=145. Taking Off Hardware.=—The compilation of the estimate schedule
of finishing hardware for a building must be made from the architect’s
plans and specifications. Therefore, where possible, this work should
be done by a hardware expert or salesman, or by some person who has
the ability to read drawings easily and accurately and who is capable
of exercising thoroughness in every detail of the work. The first step
should be to study the specifications relating to the general work,
and especially that portion relating to hardware and carpenter work,
to see whether the latter embodies facts that affect the hardware. If
such is the case, notes should be made of the fact, and in many cases,
by following this rule, miscellaneous information can be gathered that
will be invaluable to the contractor and will prevent much doubt as to
requirements. The drawings should then be examined, to gain familiarity
with the building, the arrangement of the interior, and other details.
Having thus acquired a general understanding of the whole subject, the
compilation of the quantities may begin.

=146.= The list of hardware should be compiled in a systematic manner,
beginning at a definite point in the building and progressing through
the several rooms and floors in a definite order. This will insure the
inclusion of every part of the building and the careful consideration
of every opening or other place where hardware is required. For
example, in the case of a residence, it is customary to commence at
the front entrance, including the front and vestibule doors, passing
thence to the hall, taking each room on the first floor in due order,
passing to the second floor and taking each room on it in like order,
and so on until each floor is covered. The attic and basement are
usually left until last, because they require a simpler class of goods.
The same general system can be followed in the case of hotels, office
buildings, apartment houses, etc., the essential point being that an
orderly method be followed. The rooms should always be taken in natural
sequence, and all openings of similar character totaled and again
counted on the drawing, so that the chances of omission are minimized.

=147.= In the case of doors, it is necessary to make note of the size
and thickness, the hand, and the bevel, or rabbet, as required, using
in all cases three butts on all exterior doors, and also three butts on
all interior doors 7 feet or more high. The size of the butts should
in all instances be sufficient to cause the door to clear the trim.
The width of stiles and the general construction of the doors should
be noted, paying particular attention to the front-entrance doors, as
architects sometimes design these regardless of the hardware that is
to be used on them. Frequently, a careful scaling and scrutinizing of
elaborately designed doors will show a shelf effect returning back to
the lock stile, covering nearly half its width, just about where the
lock should be placed. Such defects can be remedied easily, if observed
in time, by directing the architect’s attention to them.

In the case of sliding-doors, it should be noted whether they are
single or double, what is to be the character of the hanger, or
rail, and the length of the run, and whether the door has a flat or
a half-round astragal. The width of the stile and the size of the
friction strip should also be noted, so that the hardware will not
conflict with the woodwork, molding, etc., as, where necessary, special
backsets can be procured on sliding-door locks to overcome this trouble.

Where double-acting doors are shown, always take note of the
thickness, width, and height, also of the width of the lock stile
and the height of the bottom rail, so that, if push plates or kick
plates are required, the suitable dimensions for them can readily be
estimated. The dead locks for these doors should be ordered with oval
fronts for single doors and oval fronts and strikes for double doors,
to allow for neat fitting to the rounded edge of the doors. Where kick
plates are required for double doors of this character, flush bolts
should be mortised into the edge of the door, so that the lower bolt
will not interfere with the kick plates.

=148.= In stating the information for windows, full details are needed
as to whether they are single- or double-hung, French casement,
stationary, or ordinary casement. Double-hung windows 20 inches or
less in width require only one sash lift. Extra-wide windows, such as
those over 36 inches, should have either bar lifts or two extra-heavy
hook sash lifts. The window stops should be studied in detail, so as to
estimate the number of screws that will be required for each window.
In the case of French windows, it is well to determine the height,
the width of the stile, whether the joints are rabbeted, beveled,
or flat, the hand, and whether the windows swing in or out; detail
cross-sections through head-jambs, casing, and lock stiles should
also be procured if possible. In casement sash, the pivoting should
be noted, so as to determine whether it is vertical or horizontal;
the swing should also be observed, and if the sash are to be hinged,
determine whether the hinges should be placed at the top, the bottom,
or the sides. As in the consideration of doors, the thicknesses and
sizes of all casements should always be noted. Sections through the
jambs, trim, and stiles should be taken at the points where the
hardware is to be applied.

=149.= In order to determine the kind and length of the lifters to
be used on the transoms, it is necessary to note the distance from
the floor to the center of each transom, also whether they are to be
pivoted or hinged from the bottom or the top, and how they are to
swing. The cross-section through side jambs and casings should always
be ascertained, in order to see that the hardware will be suitable to
meet the conditions of the trim.

=150.= It is necessary to learn all details of the pantry, including
the thickness and height of doors, whether they are double or single,
and the number of each kind. Note all drawers; those under 20 inches
in width require only one pull. The details of the flour bins should
be examined to determine whether they are to be hinged at the bottom
and are to tilt, or whether they are to be curved on plan and are to be
hinged at the side, as each condition requires different hardware.

=151.= Where unavoidable interferences are discovered, or where the
plans and specifications are obscure or defective, a note of the facts
should be made, and when all such matters have been collected, they
should be submitted to the architect for his decision as a basis for
final determination.

=152. Application of Hardware.=—Owing to the fact that hardware has
become more intricate in its manufacture and therefore more complicated
in its construction, it is found that the proper amount of intelligence
is not always exercised in its application. Frequently it is applied
so carelessly that the hardware practically loses its most essential
features. In the case of mortise-lock sets, all of the better grades
are made with easy springs, so that the door will close gently and
surely. However, this one feature alone is sometimes obliterated by
careless application. The trouble in this direction is principally
caused by the carpenter fitting the lock into the door untrue, and then
screwing the escutcheons to the doors out of plumb and alinement. This
causes the knob shanks, when rotated, to bind, or stick, in the sleeve,
or collar, of the escutcheon, thereby holding back the latch bolt after
the latch is withdrawn into the lock case. It is also found that proper
adjustment is seldom given to the knobs and spindles passing through
the escutcheons. In many cases when the hardware is applied carelessly,
the owner, not knowing the real cause of the trouble, condemns the best
hardware as being cheap and unsatisfactory.

In the application of cylinder locks for either front doors or office
doors, it is found that a great amount of inexperience is shown by
the average mechanic. In some cases, the locks are inverted, with
the cylinder below the knobs, when it is designed to be above; also,
sometimes, in reversing a front-door lock with night work, good
judgment is not always used.

=153.= Such troubles as those just described can be easily overcome,
and if the methods of applying hardware that follow are strictly
adhered to, satisfactory operation will be assured.

Reversing the ordinary mortise, or rim, lock requires no special
ability on the part of the workman, as the operation consists of merely
taking off the cap and turning over the latch bolt. Where, however, a
mortise lock is to be applied, care must be exercised so that it will
work properly. First fit the lock into the door at the proper height
from the floor, making the mortise large enough for the lock to enter
easily. Bore the holes for the knob and the key, and insert the screws
in the lock face and drive them home. Now take the escutcheons, or
roses, and knobs and apply them to the door, carefully adjusting the
knobs and spindles so that there is only slight play in the length.
Then true up both escutcheons, by holding one with the thumb and the
other with the fingers. When this much is accomplished, turn the knobs
right and left to see whether they work properly; if they bind in the
collar, adjust the escutcheons a trifle, vertically or horizontally,
until the knobs rotate back to the original position in both directions
without binding. By using a scratch awl and punch carefully, the exact
center of each screw hole may be located, and by holding the awl
perfectly true the screws will be started true. The escutcheons may now
be released and the screws driven home. If this method is carefully
followed, workmen will find that the latch bolt will work properly
in almost every case. Always try the knob, when the application is
completed, by rotating both to the right and to the left, and if found
to bind, always make the proper adjustment before leaving the work.

=154.= In fitting strikes to the jambs, it is suggested that the
workman locate them as low as possible, to conform to the locks,
leaving the margin in the strike below the lock bolts. Doors in new
buildings are liable to sag slightly, and if proper allowance is not
made, the strikes may have to be readjusted, sometimes even before the
contract is completed.

It is also necessary for the carpenter or superintendent to caution
the painters not to paint or varnish any hardware, especially the lock
faces, as this will also retard the operation of the latch bolt. As
previously stated, the hardware should be fitted to the work and then
replaced in the original packages, so as to protect it from abuse and
damage, applying it permanently only after the painting is completed.

=155.= In applying cylinder, or front-door, locks, the conditions are
still more difficult to overcome. When reversing cylinder locks that
have swivel spindles, unscrew the cap and reverse the latch bolt; also,
reverse the hubs, that is, the parts of the lock through which the
spindles pass. Cylinder locks should always be mortised into the door
at the proper height from the floor, and the holes for the cylinders
and knob spindles then made. Insert the lock into the mortise, but do
not put screws into the face; then apply the escutcheons and adjust
the knob, taking care that the swivel of the spindle centers at the
joint in the split hub. Now proceed to screw in the cylinder to its
full extent, so that the cylinder collar is held rigidly between the
cylinder and the escutcheon, and the cylinder is perfectly vertical.
Then set the cylinder adjusting screw, and insert the wooden screws in
lock face and drive them home with the screwdriver. Hold and adjust the
escutcheon so that the knob will rotate back and forth automatically
without friction, starting the screw holes with an awl. If the doors
are made of hardwood, an automatic drill will have to be used to bore
the screw holes. In such a case, follow the directions just given
regarding escutcheons; then start the holes with a scratch awl while
still holding the escutcheons, and enlarge the holes with the drill.
Screws that are off center, when driven home into the countersinking,
will surely draw the escutcheon so that the knobs will bind and thus
destroy the most desirable feature of the lock.

=156.= Mechanics will find that the better the grade of the hardware,
the more care must be taken in its application. Hardware for fine
buildings is generally furnished with high, or bracket-bearing, collars
on escutcheons and screwless knobs for adjustment without washers.
These are fitted and turned carefully, so that there is very little
play between knob shanks and collars, and for this reason they bind
more readily when improperly applied. The mechanic should try the
lock in every possible way before leaving the work. He should set the
stop in the lock face, to be sure that swivel spindles are adjusted
properly, and also insert the key in the cylinder, to see whether it
operates smoothly while operating both bolts.

SCHEDULES AND DRAWINGS FOR THE HARDWARE CONTRACTOR

=157. Hardware Schedules.=—The contractor for the hardware usually
takes off his own bill of material from the general drawings and the
specifications furnished by the architect. However, the architect will
sometimes supply the hardware schedule and obtain prices for the same
direct from the dealer, thus saving the owner the general contractor’s
profit and insuring bids based on material of uniform character and
quality. It is well, therefore, to give some thought to the preparation
of the schedule, so as to insure a good classification and to avoid
omissions.

In drafting a schedule of hardware required for a building, it must be
compiled from a copy of the hardware specifications and a list of all
openings, cabinets, etc. that has been taken from the drawings. The
schedule should be subdivided primarily into building sections, such as
_first floor_, _second floor_, etc. as headings. Under these headings,
each opening or group of openings in each room or division should be
listed. Under the name of each opening or series of openings should be
grouped all the hardware required, itemizing each and every article
necessary and stating the quantity, numbers, sizes, or dimensions,
design, and finish.

Schedules thus prepared are readily priced for estimating, and such
classification eliminates the possibilities of omissions. Besides, the
order can be executed by the manufacturer in exact conformity with
the instructions, the hardware for each opening can be combined in a
separate package, and each package clearly labeled to indicate its
contents and the room or opening to which it belongs. The following
shows a typical form of schedule:

FIRST FLOOR

_One Pair of Entrance Doors_, 2' 8" × 7' 6" × 2¼"
Rt.-Hd. rabbeted.
1 cylinder, front door, Set No. _____. Plain bronze metal.
1 push button, No. _______. Plain bronze metal.
2 extension flush bolts, Plain bronze metal.
No. ______, ¹/₁₂", ¹/₁₈".
3 pair of butts, No. ______, 5" × 5". Plain bronze metal.

_One Pair of Sliding Doors_, _Hall to Parlor_,
2" astragal face, 1½" friction strip.
1 set of locks, No. ______, 3" backset. Plain bronze metal.
3 dozen countersunk screws and washers. Plain bronze metal.
2 sets of anti-friction, noiseless,
parlor-door hangers and track, complete, No. _____.

_Pantry Cupboard._
2 pair of doors, 1⅛"; 2 single doors, 1⅛".
1 tilt flour bin; 4 drawers (2 narrow).
6 pair of butts, No. _____, 2½" × 2½". Plain bronze plated.
1 pair of butts, No. _____, 3" × 2½". Plain bronze plated.
2 elbow catches, No. _____. Japanned.
4 cupboard turns, No._____. Plain bronze plated.
7 draw pulls, No._____. Plain bronze plated.

SECOND FLOOR

_Ten Doors_, 2' 8" × 7" × 1¾", 6 R. H., 4 L. H. transom, top-hung.
10 inside lock sets, No._____. Plain bronze metal.
15 pair of butts, No. ______, 4½" × 4½". Plain bronze plated.
10 pair of butts, No._____, 3" × 2½". Plain bronze plated.
10 transom lifts, No.______, ⁵/₁₆" × 4". Plain bronze plated.
10 wooden-base knobs, 2½" diameter.

DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOWS

10 sash fasts, No. ____. Plain bronze metal.
20 sash lifts, No. ____. Plain bronze metal.
10 sash sockets, No. ____. Plain bronze metal.
4 sash hooks, No. ____. Plain bronze metal.
10 dozen adjusting screws and washers. Plain bronze metal.

The foregoing schedule is merely intended as an example of a
classified, brief, and at the same time comprehensive hardware
schedule. A schedule of this kind shows, almost at a glance, the nature
of the hardware to be supplied, and if prepared by the architect,
should tend to procure bids based on uniform requirements.

=158. Detail Drawings for the Hardware Contractor.=—In some architects’
offices, it is the practice to provide, on a single detail sheet,
cross-sections of every type of door stile in the building. The
time required to make such a drawing is slight, while the results
accomplished are most useful. Copies of this drawing are furnished to
the contractors for the cabinet trim and to the hardware contractor,
so that each of them will have identical information and that the work
will assemble properly when the hardware is put in place.

Such drawings should show the dimensions of the transverse sections of
the vertical stile, or lock stile for each door, also the overlapping,
if any, of panel moldings, together with the shape of bevels, rabbets,
astragals, and any other details affecting the size and location of
locks, hinges, butts, etc. The hand of the doors is usually, and
better, indicated on the floor plans. A further argument is that the
character and dimensions are liable to be overlooked when arranging
the paneling of doors; whereas, both should be considered. The use
of narrow stiles, special rabbets, and astragals, shelf effects,
friction strips, etc. is resorted to without sufficiently considering
the disadvantages that result from the contracted space in which the
lock and its trim must be placed. Where the items just mentioned are
proposed, the architect should ascertain what locks are available and
should provide space for those selected. Special locks are always
expensive, while a cramped space precludes the best construction.

GLASS AND GLAZING

=159. Single- and Double-Thick Common Glass.=—In the manufacture of
the ordinary window glass used in building construction, the glass is
first blown in cylindrical form and then cut and flattened, after which
it is reduced to salable sizes for shipment. Owing to this method of
manufacture, the percentage of first-quality glass is small, the larger
proportion of the product being second or third quality. All glass of
this kind is wavy or uneven and also has a slight bow, or curve, to its
length that is impossible to overcome when making. The only difference
in the qualities of common glass is in the amount of the imperfections
that it contains. These imperfections consist of bull’s-eyes, blisters,
scratches, and streaks that distort objects seen through the glass.

The better grade of common glass is manufactured in what are called
continuous tanks, which are heated by natural gas. This glass is put
up in boxes containing 50 square feet. =Single-thick glass= runs from
thirteen to fifteen lights to 1 inch of thickness, and =double thick=
from eight to ten lights to the inch. Single-thick glass above 20 in.
× 24 in. in size should not be used except for work of a speculative
nature. The ability to distinguish single and double thick and the
various qualities of glass can only be acquired by observation. In
judging glass, it is well to remember that small lights free from
defects or uneven surfaces may be obtained much more easily than large
ones.

=160. Ground, or Sand-Blast Glass.=—Common or plate glass, the surface
of which is made obscure by the process of grinding, is called =ground
glass=. This treatment, however, does not injure the diffusing
qualities of the glass.

The =sand-blast process= of treating glass produces results similar to
grinding. As the name implies, sand is blown against the glass under
high pressure and thus makes numerous small cuttings on its surface,
producing the appearance of ground glass.

[Illustration: FIG. 159]

=161. Chipped Glass.=—The glass illustrated in Fig. 159 is called
=chipped glass=, and is manufactured in the following manner: The
glass is first given a coat of glue and is then placed in a heated
receptacle; this process tends to contract and curl the glue, so that
when it dislodges itself from the glass, the cohesion will draw or
chip off particles of glass, leaving the surface uneven and showing a
design similar to that on a frosted window light. Chipped glass can
be procured in either the single or the double process (i. e., with
a single or a double chipping); and these processes are adaptable to
either sheet or plate glass, white or colored.

[Illustration: FIG. 160]

=162. Figured Rolled Glass.=—Glass known generally as =figured rolled
glass= is manufactured for use in offices, public buildings, and
private residences where a glass is required to intercept the vision
and still diffuse the light. This glass has practically supplanted the
varicolored cathedral glass previously used, because of its obscurity
without reducing the quantity of light. Figured rolled glass is made in
various artistic designs, several of which are illustrated in Fig. 160,
and is ⅛ and ³/₁₆ inch in thickness. This glass is inexpensive; the
prices range from 15 to 25 cents per square foot.

=163. Plate Glass.=—The process of manufacturing =plate glass= is
radically different from that of common sheet glass. The latter is
blown, while the former is cast in large sheets and placed in annealing
ovens to cool. When taken from the ovens the glass is rough and opaque,
but it is afterwards ground and polished to make it transparent, the
polishing being the most delicate process in its manufacture. Plate
glass glistens like a mirror and reflects like one; objects seen
through it are sharp and clean-cut; it has no imperfections or wavy
effects, and does not distort and deform objects as does sheet glass.

=164. Beveled Plate Glass.=—The term =beveled plate= is applied to
plate glass the edges of which are ground and polished to form a bevel,
or border, around the glass. Plate glass finished in this manner
is much used for glazing entrance doors and for ornamental work.
The additional cost for beveling is slight compared with the effect
resulting therefrom.

=165. Floor and Skylight Glass.=—=Floor glass= is made only from rough
rolled or hammered glass in ½-, ¾-, and 1-inch thicknesses. The prices
range from 30 cents to $1 per foot, according to the thickness.

=Skylight glass= is similar to floor glass, but can be procured in ⅛-,
³/₁₆-, ¼-, and ⅜-inch thicknesses, and in either ribbed or roughened
surfaces. This glass is inexpensive, the prices ranging from 8 to 15
cents per square foot. Large quantities of skylight glass are used for
mills, skylights, and various other purposes, but it is not used as
a fire-retardant, as wire glass has entirely superseded it for this
purpose.

=166. Wire Glass.=—Glass with wire embedded therein, as illustrated in
Fig. 161, is made either ribbed, rough-rolled, “maze” design, or clear,
polished plate. The wire netting is embedded in its center during the
process of manufacture, thus producing a very strong glass that is a
good fire-retardant. The temperature at which the wire is embedded in
the molten glass insures cohesion between the metallic netting and
the glass, and the two materials become as one; thus, if the glass is
broken by shock, by intense heat, or from some other cause, it remains
practically intact. Wire glass combines the strength of the wire
netting and the glass plate, and the wire is so thoroughly covered as
to obviate the possibility of rust or corrosion. This glass possesses
extraordinary strength; a piece ¼ inch thick is as strong as ordinary
glass of twice that thickness. When wire glass is broken, it will not
scatter like plate or skylight glass; consequently, it finds extensive
use for overhead work, where falling glass due to accidental breakage
would be a source of danger.

[Illustration: FIG. 161]

Wire glass is made ¼, ⅜, and ½ inch thick, and up to 40 inches wide and
100 inches long. This glass is sold at from 30 to 40 cents per square
foot for rough, ribbed, or maze pattern, according to the thickness,
while polished wire glass costs either 60 cents, 95 cents, or $1.25 per
square foot, according to the dimension of the light. Wire glass is
practically burglar-proof and missile-proof, and when set in approved
metallic frames forms a most efficient fire-retardant window. In its
use as a fire-stop, it possesses advantage in that it does not hide the
incipient blaze like steel-plate or tin-lined shutters. Windows glazed
with wire glass require no shutters for protection, but an opening may
be made in it by a blow from a fire-ax. Wire glass as a fire-retardant
is approved by the various boards of fire underwriters, and it may be
used for windows, skylights, and other exterior openings exposed to
fire hazard.

[Illustration: FIG. 162]

=167. Prisms, or Prismatic Glass.=—When a ray of light passes from air
to glass, it undergoes the change in direction called _refraction_.
The knowledge of this property of light is utilized in the design of
=prismatic glass=, an example of which is illustrated in Fig. 162.
Prisms are made of clear crystal glass, with the outer side usually
plain. The inner side, however, is formed into prisms of a great
variety of angles made to suit the several conditions under which the
lights may be used. Prism plates are made in two styles: _Pressed
prism plates_, which are composed of 4- or 5-inch pressed lenses that
are glazed together with a drawn zinc or copper bar, the several bars
forming a frame being brazed together electrically, and _rolled_, or
_sheet, prisms_, which are first rolled in large sheets and then cut to
size.

Under average conditions, the direct light from the sky entering a room
through sheet or plate glass strikes the floor within a few feet of the
window and is mostly absorbed. For this reason, the rear part of the
room is dark. By the installation of prisms at the window openings,
however, the direction of the entering light is changed and projected
horizontally into the room. Prisms do not create light; they simply
distribute and diffuse the excess light at the window. Under certain
conditions the effective light in a room may be increased fifty times
by the installation of prisms. In Fig. 163, the arrows _a_ show the
direction of the lowest rays from the sky over the cornice of the
opposite building, striking the prism plate at the floors. These arrows
also indicate vertical rays, striking canopies and skylights, while the
arrows _b_ show the directions of the rays just mentioned after passing
through the prism plate; also, the manner in which the light rays are
projected into the building.

[Illustration: FIG. 163]

=168. Vault Lights for Basement, or Cellar, Lighting.=—Where the
sidewalk and the basement ceiling are nearly on a level, basement rooms
can be successfully lighted by the installation of =vault lights=, or
_glass pavement tile_. The ordinary method is to use plain, round, or
square lenses, which are set in iron or concrete in iron frames, as
illustrated in Figs. 164 and 165, though vault lights are now made with
the supporting material of reinforced concrete. Where the ceiling is
low or the room at all deep, the system in which plain lenses are used
is unsatisfactory, as the direct light from the sky in passing through
the lens strikes the floor immediately underneath.

[Illustration: FIG. 164]

[Illustration: FIG. 165]

[Illustration: FIG. 166]

[Illustration: FIG. 167]

The more modern method is to use prism tile set in the necessary
frames. The prism receives the direct light from the sky on the upper
face and turns, or refracts, it back into the basement, as illustrated
in Fig. 166. Where the head-beam or other obstructions interfere with
the deflection of light direct from the prism, it becomes necessary
to use in connection with the skylight or canopy just described an
independent vertical frame of window prisms of varying angles. These
prisms intercept the light from the pavement tiles and project it into
the basement, thus utilizing the light to the maximum advantage.

=169. Glazier’s Points.=—A necessary adjunct in glazing with putty is
the sheet-zinc, triangular =glazier’s points=, as illustrated in Fig.
167. These points are made in six sizes, which range from No. 000,
the largest, to No. 3, the smallest. They are also made in somewhat
similar shape, called _sharps_, but this type is not so popular as the
_triangle point_.

=170. Grades of Putty.=—Putty is usually graded as follows:
_Commercial_, a very cheap grade; _pure_, a medium grade; and _strictly
pure_, the best grade, which is made of pure whiting ground in linseed
oil. The cheaper grades are made in the same manner, but with an amount
of adulteration, either in oils or whiting, commensurate with the cost.
Therefore, the cheaper the putty, the more it is adulterated, and none
but strictly pure should be used when good results are desired.

_White-lead putty_ is in a class by itself, and costs about twice as
much as strictly pure whiting putty; but where permanent glazing is
required, its use will show handsome returns on the investment.

ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES

(PART 1)

INTRODUCTION

=1. Scope of Subject.=—The art of estimating is very important both to
the architect and to the builder; to the latter, in that he must employ
some systematic method of estimating in order to carry on his business
successfully, and to the former for the reason that he should at all
times be able to estimate the cost of the buildings that he designs.

The science—for such it is—of fixing prices on a piece of work in any
branch of the building trades must be based on an extended experience.
With a little practice, any one can learn to take off the quantities
of materials, but when it comes to determining the rates, only persons
having extensive and varied knowledge of building and costs of various
details can accurately estimate the time and labor required to
complete the work. In order, then, that the duties and requirements
of a practical estimator may be thoroughly understood, a number of
detailed estimates will be given in this Section as guides. It should
be remembered, however, that as the prices of materials and labor vary
from those assumed, so will the estimates vary. The information given
in detail should be considered only as a general guide in analyzing the
elements that enter into the constructive problems in each department
of the building trades. In this way it will be possible to determine
intelligently the various unit costs. The estimates given are, in
general, net figures, and do not include any contractor’s profit.

=2. Qualifications of the Estimator.=—In the United States, there are
no standard or definite rules on estimating that hold good in every
section. The builders of each locality have their own ideas and customs
regarding the subject. This fact, together with the difference in the
cost of labor in various parts of the country and the fluctuations
in the market price of materials, requires, as before remarked, that
a competent estimator be a man of long and varied experience in the
business. There are, however, certain practical rules and suggestions
that will materially assist in taking off the quantities and in valuing
the labor required for any building operation. These points will
therefore be taken up and considered in detail in this Section.

=3. Important Factors.=—The prime considerations in making an estimate
are accuracy and time. To these ends the estimator must systematize
his efforts, and endeavor to do a maximum amount of work in a minimum
amount of time. This, however, should not be done at the expense of
accuracy, for accuracy is the most important factor and is only insured
when the figures are carefully checked. The estimator, therefore,
while avoiding too great refinements in calculation, should aim at
correctness rather than at speed in doing the work. Very frequently
do the effects of haste and inaccuracy in estimating the cost of a
structure become evident when it is too late to remedy the errors,
resulting sometimes in the financial ruin of the builder that trusts
too implicitly in the estimator’s figures.

A record should be kept of all estimates made, as this kind of
information is most valuable and establishes a precedent on which to
base subsequent estimates, as well as a check on the work at hand.

PRINCIPLES OF ESTIMATING

APPROXIMATE ESTIMATING

=4.= In order to make a preliminary estimate, before the plans of a
structure are drawn, but after the general dimensions of the proposed
building have been determined, architects and builders sometimes
employ a method of =approximate estimating=, by which the cost is
figured at so much per cubic foot of the building, the rate varying
according to its character and the finish required. The method is
also considerably used by insurance companies in fixing the amount to
be placed on a building. It should be borne in mind that this method
gives the approximate cost only, and should never be used in figuring
the contract price of a building. This estimate, however, may be used
to advantage in checking the accurate estimate, with which it will
frequently be found to agree remarkably well.

TABLE I

COST OF BUILDINGS PER CUBIC FOOT

Table I shows the approximate cost per cubic foot of various kinds
of structures. In computing the contents of a building, there is no
uniformity in practice, but no great error will be made in figuring the
solid contents from floor of cellar to ridge of roof.

OUTLINE OF THE WORK

=5.= The drawings and specifications of a structure are the guides that
the estimator must follow in making his computations. All measurements
necessary for calculating the quantity of the materials required are
obtained from the drawings; and all information in regard to the
character of the workmanship and the quality of the materials to be
used is furnished by the specifications.

In compiling a schedule, there are three stages to the operation: (1)
Taking the dimensions for each of the various classes of work; (2)
computing and collecting the quantities; and (3) estimating the cost.

In carrying out the first of these steps, each of its subdivisions
should be considered in the order in which the work will be executed in
the building. This order is about as follows:

1. Excavation 8. Joinery
2. Concrete work 9. Hardware and ironwork
3. Stonework 10. Heating and ventilation
4. Brickwork 11. Plumbing and gas-fitting
5. Carpentry 12. Painting and papering
6. Roofing 13. Glazing
7. Plastering

The third step, estimating the cost, may be subdivided into cost of
labor and cost of material. The latter can be definitely fixed by an
examination of lists giving current prices of materials; while the
former must be based on a fixed rate of wages per day for the various
classes of workmen.

The second and third branches of the work, being closely connected with
the first, will be partly considered in connection with it, and, later,
in detail in the complete example on estimating.

ACCURATE ESTIMATING SCHEDULE

=6.= There are so many items to be considered in a careful estimate,
that the estimator should have a list of those coming under each of
the main headings already given, and in compiling a schedule he should
follow this order. The following list, which is arranged to assist in
making an estimate on a dwelling house, will serve as an example of the
general method that should be adopted:

EXCAVATION

Cellar Wells
Areas Pipe trenches
Piers Fence trenches
Privy vaults Grading
Footings Filling
Cesspool Labor
Catch basins

CONCRETE WORK

Cement Wells
Sand Area walls
Broken stone Chimneys
Form lumber Footings
Foundation walls Floors
Partition walls Columns
Piers Pavements
Exterior walls Fences
Concrete blocks Hearths
Concrete cornices Steel reinforcement
Core walls Anchor bolts
Backing Nails and spikes
Cesspools Labor
Tanks

STONEWORK

Lime Wells
Cement Chimneys
Sand Footings
Mortar Cut or dressed stonework
Foundation walls Carved stonework
Exterior walls Pavements
Partition walls Stone fences
Piers Stone hearths
Area walls Anchors and bolts
Cesspools Labor

BRICKWORK

Lime Cesspools
Cement Wells
Sand Range setting
Mortar Furnace setting
Foundation walls Footings
Exterior walls Chimneys
Partition walls Trimmer arches
Piers Brick hearths
Area walls Pavements
Terra-cotta work Fences
Tiling Labor

CARPENTRY

FRAMING

Girders in cellar Joists, first story
Sills Joists, second story
Cross-sills Joists, third story
Posts Joists, attic story
Beams Ceiling beams
Girts Headers
Studs Trimmers
Plates Common rafters
Deck plates Hip rafters
Tower plates Valley rafters
Braces Purlins
Joists, basement Furring
Ridge pole Carrying beams
Collar beams Ironwork
Lintels Rods and bolts
Framing piers Nails and spikes
Outlookers Labor

COVERING

Sheathing lumber Flooring
Sheathing paper Corner boards
Base Casings
Siding Cornice
Shingles Labor

ROOFING

Tin Gutter linings
Shingle Solder
Slate Cresting
Tile Finials
Paper or felt Conductor hooks and fastenings,
Hanging gutters nails and hooks
Conductor pipes Cast shoes or boots
Conductor heads Labor
Flashings

PLASTERING

Lath Three-coat work
Lime Plaster board
Sand Patent plaster
Hair Tiling, marble, etc.
Plaster of Paris Stucco cornices
Plastering mortar Stucco arches
Deafening Stucco centers
Back plastering Nails
One-coat work Labor
Two-coat work

JOINERY

INSIDE AND OUTSIDE FINISH

Window frames Doors
Door frames Base
Sashes Architraves
Corner and plinth blocks Posts
Outside and inside blinds Columns
Brackets Balusters
Wainscoting Hand railing
Moldings Nails and screws
Planed lumber Labor

STAIRS

Rough lumber Hand railing
Treads and risers Balusters
Strings Brackets
Spandrels Bolts
Moldings Nails and screws
Newels Labor

HARDWARE

Mortise locks Sash lifts
Rim locks Sash cord
Padlocks Transom lifters
Butts (various sizes) Cupboard catches
Wrought butts Hooks and eyes
Strap hinges Drawer pulls
Blind hinges Mortise bolts
Sash fasteners Door stops
Sash weights Door hangers
Shutter bars Axle pulleys

HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM

HOT-AIR HEATING

Furnace Registers
Cold-air ducts and slide Sheet-tin and asbestos
dampers fire protection
Hot-air pipes, elbows, and dampers Smoke pipe
Register boxes Labor

STEAM HEATING

Boiler Smoke pipe
Regulating and safety Steam pipes
appliances Return pipes
Fittings Galvanized sheet-iron casings
Hangers for indirect stacks
Indirect, direct-indirect, Sheet-iron indirect flues, screens,
and direct radiators and dampers
Valves Indirect registers and boxes
Air vents Japanning and bronzing
Floor and ceiling plates Pipe coverings
Labor

HOT-WATER HEATING

Heater
Automatic damper regulator
Smoke pipe
Expansion tanks
Radiators, pipes, fittings, etc., same as for steam heating
Labor

PLUMBING AND GAS-FITTING

PLUMBING FIXTURES

Kitchen range with water-back Kitchen sinks
Plunge baths Pantry sinks
Shower baths Slop sinks
Foot baths Laundry tubs
Sitz baths Safes
Wash basins Hot- and cold-water faucets
Water closets for fixtures
Urinals Labor

WATER SUPPLY

_City Supply_ Pumps
Permits Supply tanks
Corporation connections Outside piping
Excavation Lawn and garden hydrants
Extra-heavy lead, iron or Fittings, etc.
brass service pipe Wrought-iron pipe fittings
Curb cock and box Brass pipe fittings
Stop and waste Lead pipe fittings

_Well Supply_ Solder nipples
Storage cisterns Stop-cocks
Cistern filters Pipe straps
Metal tacks Wiping solder
Kitchen boiler and stand Labor

HOUSE DRAINAGE

Permits Lead soil, waste,
Sewer connections and vent pipes
Excavations Lead traps
Vitrified sewer pipe Brass traps
and fittings Fixture connections (brass)
Earthenware traps Wrought-iron, galvanized, or
Portland cement asphalt-coated drain, soil,
Unglazed drain pipe and vent pipes and fittings
Cast-iron soil pipe and Fresh-air inlets, vent caps
fittings Vent-pipe flashings
Lead and oakum Wall hooks, straps, bands,
Cast-iron traps and hangers
Handholes and cleanouts Wiping solder
Lead bends, brass ferrules Labor

GAS-FITTING

Permit Chandeliers
Tapping main Pendants
Excavation Wall brackets
Meters Pillar lights
Stop-cocks Globes, shades, and fireguards
Drip cups Gas stoves and ranges
Piping Gas-heater connections
Straps and hangers Labor
Fittings
Pressure regulators

PAINTING AND PAPERING

PAINTING

Body of house Floors
Trimmings Ceilings
Blinds Walls
Roof Sash
Porches Shelving
Inside work Mantels
Oiling Fences
Polishing Outbuildings
Varnishing Labor

PAPERING

Paper Lining paper
Borders Labor

GLAZING

Sheet glass Ribbed glass
(single or double thick) Frosted glass
Plate glass Glaziers’ points
Leaded glass Putty
(stained or clear) Labor

EXCAVATION

=7. Excavation= is generally measured by the cubic yard, although, in a
few localities, measurement by the perch is still in use. If the latter
method is adopted, it should be stated just what is meant by a perch,
as this varies considerably in different parts of the country.

Before fixing the price for excavation, it is advisable to investigate
the character of the soil by making boring tests. Where there is rock
to be blasted in making the excavation, a special price should be given
in the estimate. If the ground is wet, rendering pumping necessary,
provision should be made for the cost of the extra labor needed.
The disposition to be made of the excavated material should also be
considered; if it must be hauled a long distance, the cost will be much
greater than if the soil can be _wasted_ near by. To aid in estimating
the actual cost, it is convenient and approximately correct to consider
1 cubic yard of ordinary earth as a load for an ordinary two-horse
wagon.

In making calculations of the amount of material to be removed, care
should be taken to note the existing levels of the ground and those
required by the drawings. The excavation should be figured (and made)
at least 1 foot greater than the size of the foundation, so as to
provide room for setting the masonry, pointing, etc.

Excavation for pipes, drains, etc. should be at least 9 inches wider
than the diameter of the pipe to be laid therein. If the soil in which
the excavation is to be made is of a loose and sandy nature that is
liable to crumble and slide, a slope, say of 3 inches horizontal to 1
foot vertical, should be allowed on both sides of the trenches. If the
latter are of considerable depth, it is sometimes necessary to curb or
shore up the sides, in which case an allowance should be made in the
estimate for the lumber required. If piles are required, they should be
figured at so much per linear foot, driven.

ACTUAL COST OF EXCAVATION

=8.= In order that an idea may be formed of the actual cost of
excavating various kinds of soils, figures based on work actually
performed are here given. On this work, for a day of 8 hours, a laborer
was paid $2, and a driver with a two-horse team, $4.

As a rule, one laborer can excavate about 7 cubic yards of sandy
soil in 8 hours. Thus, at the rate of 25 cents per hour, the cost
of excavating this kind of soil is about 28½ cents per cubic yard,
provided the material is wasted around the building. To this figure,
however, must be added 4 or 5 cents to cover the foreman’s wages, the
exact amount depending on the number of men under the foreman. This
brings the total cost per cubic yard to about 33 cents.

When the material has to be carted away, the cost is further increased.
A team with a driver can haul away about 20 cubic yards of soil in a
day if the haul is only about ½ mile. In order to do this, however,
an extra wagon must be at hand so that the laborers can be loading
one wagon while the team is hauling away the other. Thus, the cost of
hauling 1 cubic yard of excavated material ½ mile is 20 cents. The
total cost, therefore, of excavating 1 cubic yard of sandy soil and
hauling it ½ mile is 33 + 20 = 53 cents.

=9.= If the soil is compact gravel, the cost of excavating, including
the foreman’s time, will be from 34 to 65 cents per cubic yard,
depending on its hardness. It costs about the same to haul compact
gravel as it does to haul sandy soil.

The exact cost of excavating wet soil cannot be given, as the
conditions encountered may vary in each case. In a stated time, a
laborer will excavate nearly as much wet material as dry material, but
the conditions of sheet piling and pumping out water makes the price
uncertain.

Such excavation is usually carried on at a cost of from 75 cents to
$1.25 per cubic yard.

In excavating rock, three men—one rockman and two laborers—usually
work together. For a day of 8 hours, the rockman receives $3 and each
laborer gets $2. Together, therefore, the wages of the three amounts to
$7 a day. These men will excavate about 6 cubic yards of rock in 1 day,
making the rock excavation cost $1.17 per cubic yard. To this must be
added the cost of explosives, which is about 10 cents per cubic yard,
and the wear on tools. This latter expense can hardly be estimated,
but may also be considered as 10 cents per cubic yard, thus bringing
the total cost of rock excavation up to $1.37 per cubic yard for rock
wasted at the building.

=10.= To sum up, excavation in sandy soil wasted around the building
costs 33 cents per cubic yard; if hauled ½ mile, it costs 53 cents
per cubic yard. If the soil is compact gravel and is wasted around
the building, excavation costs from 34 to 65 cents per cubic yard;
if hauled ½ mile, from 54 to 85 cents per cubic yard. Wet excavation
with no piling or pumping costs about the same as dry; with piling and
pumping, it costs from 75 cents to $1.25 per cubic yard. Rock work
costs $1.37 per cubic yard if wasted around the building. These figures
do not include the contractor’s profit.

CONTRACTOR’S METHOD OF FIGURING EXCAVATION

=11.= Besides the actual cost of excavation, the contractor, in
estimating, must include such items as office expenses, builder’s
profits, etc. The following method of figuring, which is employed by
the estimator of a large contracting firm in the eastern part of the
United States, will therefore be found useful. As in the preceding
case, the prices will be found to vary in different localities;
therefore, the figures given should only be used as a guide in
estimating.

The prices are based on labor at $2 per day of 8 hours and a two-horse
team and driver at $5 per day of 8 hours. The excavation is assumed
to be made in ground varying from made ground to a moderately stiff
clay. The prices do not include the cost of shoring or pumping, and
are based on the assumption that there is no frost of any account
while operations are being carried out. Four classes of excavation are
recognized:

1. Excavation in trenches up to 5 feet deep, excavated material spread
on site about trenches, including back filling around walls, costs from
40 to 50 cents per cubic yard.

2. Trenches from 5 to 10 feet deep, excavated material spread on site
adjacent to trenches, including back filling around walls, costs from
65 to 75 cents per cubic yard.

3. For cellars, or similar digging, up to 6 feet deep and having an
area large enough to use a plow for loosening the earth (say areas
50 ft. × 20 ft. and over), excavated material being spread on site
adjacent to work, costs from 33 to 38 cents per cubic yard if a scoop
can be used, and from 40 to 45 cents per cubic yard if the material
must be loaded on a wagon to haul it out of the excavation.

4. When the conditions are the same as those just given, except that
the excavation is from 6 to 10 feet deep, the price is about 45 cents
per cubic yard.

The prices just given do not include hauling, except short hauls
immediately in the vicinity of the operations. The cost of hauling will
depend on the distance to the place where the material is to be dumped.

=12.= To obtain the cost of any of the classes of excavation just
given, including hauling, divide the hire of the team per day by the
number of cubic yards that can be removed to the dumping place per day,
and increase the preceding prices by that amount.

To figure the cost of sheet piling, measure the area to be sheet-piled
and allow for such stringers and braces as judgment may suggest. Since
the lumber may be used for other purposes after serving as piling,
its value should be estimated at 75 per cent. of the market price. It
usually costs about $7 per thousand feet to put the piling in place. As
a rule, 3" × 10" planks are used for this purpose.

The foregoing prices cover the general run of building work. For large
office buildings and other structures of a similar nature, where it is
necessary to excavate to a depth of about 25 feet and where several
varieties of ground are likely to be encountered, an average price for
digging (exclusive of pumping or shoring, but including a haul not
exceeding 1 mile) is $1.25 per cubic yard. If large boulders are likely
to be encountered in excavating, the price should be at least $1.50 per
cubic yard.

DITCH WORK

=13.= In estimating the cost of =ditch work=, there are several factors
that influence the price. A narrow ditch costs more to dig per cubic
yard than a wide one; likewise, a deep ditch costs more than a shallow
one. Following are given prices for laying agricultural drain tiling.
While these figures do not include builder’s profit, they are based
on the actual cost of work, the wages for a day of 8 hours being $2
for laborers, $2.50 for the foreman, and $4 for a horse and driver.
In sections of the country where higher wages are paid, it will be
necessary to increase the figures at a proportional rate when making
estimates.

For trenches 3 feet deep and 18 inches wide, in very hard, clay soil
with about 10 inches of loam on top, the cost of excavating is about
12 cents per linear foot, or 72 cents per cubic yard. For filling in
the trench with the aid of a team and a scraper, it costs ¾ cent per
linear foot. For laying a 4-inch tile, including distributing along the
trench, the cost is ¾ cent per linear foot. For picking stones off of
the ground and placing them over the pipe to a depth of about 8 inches,
it costs 2¼ cents per linear foot. Each outlet built of field stones
laid in cement costs from $5 to $8.

CALCULATING THE VOLUME OF AN EXCAVATION

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

=14.= The ordinary rules of mensuration are all that are needed to
compute the =volume= of any excavation. The work is very simple when
the area to be removed is regular; but when the outlines are very
irregular and broken, the easiest method to employ in calculating the
excavation is to divide the plan into geometrical figures that are easy
to compute, and then calculate the area of each one separately. Adding
these areas and multiplying their sum by the depth of the cellar will
give the volume of the excavation.

This method will be made clear by referring to Fig. 1, which represents
the plan of an irregular foundation. To compute the area of the
excavation, the plan is divided into the rectangles _a d c b_, _l k b
m, j i h g, g f e c_, and the polygons _n q p o, t u r s_, and _a x w
v_. By scaling on the drawing the dimensions of these figures, the area
of each may then be readily determined by calculation.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

=15.= It is sometimes necessary to find the volume of an excavation,
the surface of which is very irregular, as in Fig. 2. In such a case,
the following method may be used: Divide the surface of the excavation
into a number of squares, or rectangles, as at _d e f c_; these
represent the ends of prisms, the other ends of which are the bottom
of the excavation, as at _a h g b_. Then calculate the volume of each
prism by ascertaining the height of the four corners above the bottom;
add these measurements together, divide the sum by 4 (the number of
corners), and multiply the result by the end area, as _a h g b_; the
product will be the volume of the prism. The sum of these partial
volumes will be an accurate estimate of the contents of the excavation.

CONCRETE WORK

=16. Plain concrete work= is usually paid for by the cubic yard. The
contractor furnishes all material, including the lumber, to make the
forms; he also erects the forms and removes them after the concrete has
been placed. There is no fixed practice regarding openings in walls.
Usually, small openings under, say, 100 square feet in superficial area
are considered as solid. All larger openings are deducted from the work
when measuring for payment. In some localities, the actual volume of
the concrete work is taken by the contractor as a basis of the cost.
In either case, it is of prime importance that the architect and the
contractor make some distinct agreement _beforehand_ as to exactly how
the concrete work is to be measured and paid for.

=Reinforced-concrete work= is also often measured by the cubic yard,
although sometimes it is contracted for as a finished building.
The steel reinforcement is sometimes included in the price. Often,
patented steel reinforcement is bought separately and delivered to the
contractor; at other times, the contractor buys the patented steel
or else makes it and pays a royalty to the holder of the patent.
Reinforced-concrete floors are sometimes measured by the cubic yard and
sometimes by the square yard, according to agreement. Pavements are
usually measured by the square foot or by the square yard.

In Table II are given the costs of stone concrete and gravel concrete.
These figures do not include builder’s profit, cost of superintendence,
or cost of forms. They are based on the following costs: Labor, 25
cents per hour; cement, $2 per barrel; sand, $1.50 per cubic yard;
crushed stone, $1.65 per cubic yard; gravel, $1 per cubic yard.

To the values given in the table, the price of the wooden forms,
both for material and erection, must be added. This of course varies
considerably, according to whether the work is straight or has a number
of corners and openings in it.

TABLE II

COST OF PLAIN STONE CONCRETE
===================+===================+===============================
Mixture | Quantity | Cost
------+-----+------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----+-----
Cement|Sand |Broken|Cement|Sand |Broken|Cement|Sand |Broken|Labor|Total
Parts|Parts| Stone| Bar- |Cubic| Stone| | | Stone| |
| | Parts| rels |Yards| Cubic| | | | |
| | | | | Yards| | | | |
------+-----+------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----+-----
1 | 2 | 4 | 1.5 | .45 | .90 |$3.00 |$.68 |$1.49 |$.75 |$5.92
1 | 3 | 5 | 1.1 | .50 | .85 | 2.20 | .75 | 1.40 | .75 | 5.10
1 | 3 | 6 | 1.0 | .45 | .90 | 2.00 | .68 | 1.49 | .75 | 4.92
------+-----+------+------+-----+------+------+-----+------+-----+-----

COST OF PLAIN GRAVEL CONCRETE
-------------------+-------------------+------------------------------
Mixture | Quantity | Cost
------+-----+------+------+-----+------+------+----+------+-----+-----
Cement|Sand |Gravel|Cement|Sand |Gravel|Cement|Sand|Gravel|Labor|Total
Parts|Parts|Parts | Bar- |Cubic|Cubic | | | | |
| | | rels |Yards|Yards | | | | |
------+-----+------+------+-----+------+------+----+------+-----+-----
1 | 2 | 4 | 1.3 | .4 | .80 |$2.60 |$.60|$ .80 |$.75 |$4.75
1 | 3 | 5 | 1.0 | .5 | .80 | 2.00 | .75| .80 | .75 | 4.30
1 | 3 | 6 | .9 | .4 | .85 | 1.80 | .60| .85 | .75 | 4.00
======+=====+======+======+=====+======+======+====+======+=====+=====

The price of forms, including both material and erection, may be
said to vary from 50 cents for ordinary cellar work to $2 for heavy
retaining walls per cubic yard of concrete placed.

DATA ON REINFORCED-CONCRETE BUILDING

=17.= The cost of =reinforced-concrete buildings= varies with
the market price of cement and the steel bars or metal used for
reinforcing. At present, reinforced-concrete buildings of the
factory type constructed of common, hard, stretcher-brick walls and
reinforced-concrete floors, roof, and columns with foundations may be
built for from $1.35 to $1.65 per square foot of floor area. Usually,
the height of ceilings in factory buildings is about 14 feet from floor
to floor, thus making the cost of this type of building approximately
from 10 to 12 cents per cubic foot. For buildings of a better
commercial type, with face-brick walls and terra-cotta trimmings, the
cost per square foot of floor area will range from $1.65 to $1.90,
making the cost per cubic foot from 12 to 14 cents.

Reinforced-concrete buildings, as a rule, exceed the cost of buildings
of slow-burning construction of the same size by an amount about equal
to the cost of the metallic reinforcement. In other words, a building
of reinforced concrete costs from 10 to 25 per cent. more than the same
building of slow-burning construction.

The price of reinforced concrete per cubic yard varies within wide
limits, depending on the mass of concrete employed and the intricacies
of the forms. In building construction, reinforced concrete, including
the price of the forms, can usually be placed for from $12 to $18 per
cubic yard, the cost of the steel reinforcement being added.

Where the building is of considerable height, the same forms used in
the three lower stories may be used in constructing the balance of
the building. In such a case, the cost of the forms will probably not
exceed $6 for each cubic yard of concrete placed. If the building is
only two or three stories in height, and the work is rushed by using
new centering in each floor, the cost of the forms will range from $7
to $9 per cubic yard of concrete.

The cost of form work for floor construction will range from 10 to 12
cents per square foot. Column forms will cost in the neighborhood of
20 or 25 cents per running foot. The forms used for fine concrete-wall
construction require considerable time and bracing, and generally must
be executed with great care where finished work is required. Such forms
will cost from 8 to 10 cents per square foot of form on both sides
of the wall, but will greatly exceed this price if molded courses or
paneled spandrels are to be formed and lettering is to be cut in the
work.

=18.= In estimating the cost of =reinforced-concrete slabs=, the
cost of the centering, the concrete, and the steel reinforcements
must be considered. The cost of centering for slab work varies from
5 to 7 cents per square foot, the latter figure probably being
more nearly correct for usual conditions. The concrete for plain
reinforced-concrete slab construction on steel beams can be placed for
about $5.60 per cubic yard, or 1¾ cents for a square foot 1 inch in
thickness. At present market values, the steel for reinforcing slabs
can usually be considered as costing about 3 cents a pound, the pound
price increasing as the rods decrease in size.

Table III gives the approximate cost, in cents per square foot, of
constructing different thicknesses of reinforced-concrete slabs on
steel-beam construction with the different sizes of reinforcing bars
usually employed. The prices include cost of centering, concrete, and
steel reinforcement.

=19.= Table III cannot be used for estimating the cost of a
reinforced-concrete floor with reinforced-concrete beams and girders.
In the construction of such a floor, the centering is much more costly
than where steel beams are used for the support of the floor slab. On
an average, the centering for the reinforced-concrete floor systems,
including the studding and shoring, will cost from 20 to 22 cents per
square foot, the sides of the beam and girder forms being included
in the square-foot estimate. This cost is materially reduced where
the centering is used over and over again for the construction of
upper floors, so that where the building is six or eight stories in
height, the average cost of the centering will not exceed 10 or 12
cents per square foot, including shoring, as just mentioned. Owing to
the difficulty encountered in placing the concrete in the beams, the
tamping required with slice bars, etc., and the expense of placing
the reinforcement, the concrete for such construction will cost about
$7.50 or $8 per cubic yard. The steel for the entire construction
will usually average from 3 to 4 cents a pound, depending on whether
plain rods or deformed bars are used, or whether the system is made
up of loose rods or fabricated frames. In estimating the cost of
such a floor system, the centering should be figured by a carefully
itemized estimate, or roughly from the preceding figures. The amount of
concrete in both the slab beams and columns should be estimated, and
the total number of cubic yards required for the entire work should be
determined; then the unit price for providing and placing the concrete
should be carefully considered with reference to local conditions of
labor and cost of material.

TABLE III

COST IN CENTS PER SQUARE FOOT OF REINFORCED-
CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS SUPPORTED ON STEEL BEAMS
=========+=========+========+=========+========+========
Thickness|⁵/₁₆-Inch| ⅜-Inch |⁷/₁₆-Inch | ½-Inch |⅝-Inch
of Slab |Diameter |Diameter|Diameter |Diameter|Diameter
Inches | Rods at |Rods at | Rods at |Rods at |Rods at
| 6-Inch | 6-Inch | 6-Inch | 6-Inch | 6-Inch
| Centers |Centers | Centers |Centers |Centers
---------+---------+--------+---------+--------+--------
3½ | 14.87 | 15.58 | | |
4 | 15.75 | 16.46 | 17.24 | |
4½ | 16.62 | 17.33 | 18.11 | 18.87 |
5 | 17.50 | 18.21 | 19.00 | 19.75 | 20.87
5½ | 18.37 | 19.08 | 19.87 | 20.62 | 22.62
6 | 19.25 | 19.96 | 20.75 | 21.50 | 23.50
=========+=========+========+=========+========+========

CEMENT CELLAR FLOORS

=20.= In determining the cost of =cement cellar floors=, the concrete
proper and the top coat should be considered separately. The concrete
proper is usually reckoned by the cubic yard. About 1 hour more is
required to lay a cubic yard of floor than is necessary for plain
concrete work. Therefore, in estimating, 25 cents per cubic yard, or
the wages of a laborer for 1 hour, must be added to the figures given
in Table II. A 1-3-6 mixture is generally used. For stone concrete,
then, the cost of the concrete proper for a cement cellar floor would
be $5.17 per cubic yard, exclusive of the cost of supervision and the
builder’s profit.

An analysis of the cost per square yard of top coat 1 inch thick for a
cement cellar floor is as follows:

Cost
Cents

¼ hour, plasterer’s time, at 45 cents per hour 11¼
¼ hour, laborer’s time, at 25 cents per hour 6¼
¹/₁₅ barrel of cement, at $2 per barrel 13⅓
⅛ barrel of white sand, at 75 cents per barrel 9⅜
------
Approximate cost per square yard 40

To the foregoing should be added the cost of supervision and builder’s
profit.

CONCRETE BUILDING BLOCKS

=21.= Concrete building blocks usually present about 2 square feet of
surface in the wall and are generally 8 inches thick, thus making a
volume of 1⅓ cubic feet. Since one-third of this volume as a rule is
air space, the actual volume of concrete is a little less than 1 cubic
foot. The materials in a block of this kind, if used in a 1-4 mixture,
will cost about 18 cents. If the block is 12 inches thick instead of 8
inches, the materials will cost about half again as much, or 27 cents.
The cost of labor to manufacture these blocks depends on whether they
are made in great quantities, and the wages paid the workmen, etc.,
and varies from 6 to 10½ cents for each block. To lay a block in the
wall costs from 5 to 10 cents, 7 cents being about the average price.
This price includes the mortar used in laying. For teaming and haulage,
an allowance of 5 cents per block is usually sufficient. The cost per
block, 8 inches thick, set in the wall is then as follows:

MAXIMUM COST MINIMUM COST
CENTS CENTS
Materials 18 18
Labor 10½ 6
Placing 10 5
Haulage 5 none
------ ----
Total 43½ 29

These results divided by 2 will give the cost of the wall per square
foot, since each block is supposed to have a surface of 2 square feet.
If the wall is 12 inches thick instead of 8 inches, one-half as much
again should be added to the price.

MASONRY

=22. Stone masonry= is generally measured by the perch; in some
sections of the United States, however, measurement by the cord is
preferred, but the best method (as being invariable) is by the cubic
yard. In estimating by the perch, it is necessary to state how much
the perch is taken at, whether 24¾ or 25 cubic feet. Note should also
be made in regard to corners and deduction for openings. In most
localities it is not customary to deduct openings under a certain size,
and corners are usually measured twice.

=23.= Rough stone from the quarry is generally sold under two
classifications; namely, _rubble_ and _dimension stone_. =Rubble=
consists of pieces of irregular size, such as are most easily obtained
from the quarry, up to 12 inches in thickness by 24 inches in length.
Stone ordered of a certain size, or to square over 24 inches each way
and to be of a particular thickness, is called =dimension stone=.

Rubble masonry and stone backing are generally figured by the perch
or cubic yard. Dimension-stone footings are measured by the square
foot unless they are built of large, irregular stone, in which case
they are measured the same as rubble. Ashlar work is always figured by
the superficial foot; openings are usually deducted, and the jambs are
measured in with the face work. Flagging and slabs of all kinds, such
as hearths, treads for steps, etc., are measured by the square foot;
sills, lintels, molding, belt courses, and cornices, by the linear
foot; and irregular pieces, by the cubic foot. All carved work is done
at an agreed price by the piece.

DATA ON RUBBLE MASONRY

=24.= The following proportions and cost of materials and amount
of labor required to lay 1 perch of rubble masonry are reasonably
accurate, and will serve to give an idea of how to estimate such work.
A perch of rubble masonry requires, approximately, 2,500 pounds of
stone.

COST OF RUBBLE MASONRY
_Using 1-to-3 Lime Mortar_
1 perch of stone (25 cubic ft.) delivered at work $1.25
1 bushel of lime .25
⅙ cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard .25
½ day, mason’s labor, at $3.20 per day 1.60
¼ day, helper’s labor, at $2 per day .50
-----
Total $3.85

_Using 1-to-3 Portland-Cement Mortar_
1 perch of stone $1.25
¾ barrel of Portland cement, at $2 per barrel 1.50
¼ cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard .38
½ day, mason’s labor, at $3.20 per day 1.60
¼ day, helper’s labor, at $2 per day .50
-----
Total $5.23

To the preceding amounts should be added the cost of scaffolding and
the builder’s profit. If the walls are over two stories in height, 60
cents per perch extra for hoisting should be added.

DATA ON FLAGSTONES AND CURBING

=25. Flagstones= for sidewalks, ordinary stock, natural surface, 3
inches thick, with joints pitched to line, in lengths (along walk) from
3 to 5 feet, will cost, for a 3-foot walk, about 11 cents per square
foot (if 2 inches thick, 10½ cents); for a 4-foot walk, 12 cents; and
for a 5-foot walk, 16 cents. The cost of laying all sizes will average
about 3 cents per square foot. These figures do not include cost of
hauling.

Curbing, 4 in. × 24 in., granite, will cost from 40 to 50 cents per
linear foot at the quarry; digging and setting will cost from 10 to
12 cents additional; and the cost of freight and hauling must also be
added.

DATA ON ASHLAR AND CUT STONE

=26.= The following figures are average prices for =ashlar facing= when
the transportation charges are not excessive, and are not given as
fixed values, but more to show the relative costs. They include nothing
but plain ashlar, and in estimating, the extra cost of sills, lintels,
water-tables, belt courses, coping, etc. must be added. These prices
are based on quarrymen’s wages of $2.50 per day, and stone-cutters’
wages of $4 per day.

Good rock-face bluestone ashlar, with from 6- to 10-inch beds, dressed
about 3 inches from face, will cost, ready for laying, from 30 to 40
cents per square foot, face measure; while a higher grade of work will
cost from 40 to 55 cents per square foot. Regular course bluestone
ashlar, from 12 to 18 inches high and with from 8- to 12-inch beds,
will cost about 50 cents per square foot. To this (and the previous
figures) must be added the cost of hauling, which, on an average, will
be about 3 cents per square foot.

To the preceding figures must also be added the cost of setting the
ashlar. In estimating the cost of ashlar walls backed with brick, the
wall is considered as solid brick, the cost of setting the ashlar being
offset by the saving in cost of the brick and mortar and the labor
resulting from making part of the thickness of the wall of stone. The
cost of raking out the joints and pointing, which amounts to about 10
cents per square foot, must also be added.

=27.= The following figures show the approximate cost of cut bluestone
for various uses:

Flagstone, 5-inch, size 8' × 10', edges and top
bush-hammered, per sq. ft., face measure $ .75
Flagstone, 4-inch, size 5' × 5', select stock,
edges clean cut, natural top, per sq. ft. .45
Door sills, 8" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.35
Window sills, 5" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. .80
Window sills, 4" × 8", clean cut, per lin. ft. .45
Window sills, 5" × 8", clean cut, per lin. ft. .60
Lintels, 4" × 10", clean cut, per lin. ft. .65
Lintels, 8" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.25
Steps, sawed stock, 7" × 14", per lin. ft. 1.10
Water-table, 8" × 12", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.25
Coping, 4" × 21", clean cut, per lin. ft. 1.20
Coping, 4" × 21", rock-face edges and top,
per lin. ft. .50
Coping, 3" × 15", rock-face edges and top,
per lin. ft. .35
Coping, 3" × 18", rock-face edges and top,
per lin. ft. .40
Platform, 6 inches thick, per sq. ft. .50

To the preceding prices of cut stone must be added the cost of setting,
which for water-tables, steps, etc. will be about 10 cents per linear
foot; and for window sills, etc., about 5 cents per linear foot. In
addition, about 10 cents per cubic foot for fitting, and about 5 cents
per cubic foot for trimming the joints after the pieces are set in
place, should be allowed.

=28.= In a day of 8 hours, a stone cutter can cut about 4 square
feet of granite, about 6 square feet of bluestone, or about 8 square
feet of Ohio sandstone or limestone. These figures are for 6-cut,
patent-hammered work. For rock-face ashlar (beds worked about 3 inches
from face, the rest pitched), a workman can dress from 15 to 25 square
feet of random ashlar per day; and from 18 to 20 square feet of coursed
ashlar. In dressing laminated stone, from two to three times more work
can be done in a day on the natural surface than on the edge of layers.
In figuring cut stone, ample allowance should be made for waste, which,
on an average, will be 15 per cent.

ADDITIONAL METHOD OF ESTIMATING ASHLAR

=29.= The following method of estimating the cost of cut stone is
employed by many practical stone men. It is based on the fact that
most ashlar walls have about the same number of sills, belt courses,
lintels, water-tables, etc. in proportion to their volume, and
therefore all the stonework, both the ashlar proper and the other
cut stone, may be lumped together at one price per cubic foot. For
estimating purposes, stone may be divided into two classes: _soft
stone_, such as the sandstones, and _hard stone_, such as the granites.

=30. Soft Stone.=—Indiana limestone may be taken as an example of soft
stone. In the Eastern Pennsylvania district, where the stone cutters’
wage rate is 50 cents per hour, the cost of this kind of stone is about
as follows:

Rough blocks, per cubic foot $ .75
Sawing, jointing, cutting, rubbing, waste in stock 1.50
-----
Total $2.25

If the work is tooled, which is preferable for this material, 20 cents
per cubic foot should be added. Thus the value in the yard, but ready
to set, for an ashlar front, including water-table, sills, lintels,
belt courses, all ordinary moldings, and plain cornices, is $2.45 per
cubic foot.

Consoles, dentils, panelings, and similar ornamental work, mantels,
and interior work have no fixed prices, but must be governed by the
estimator’s knowledge of time required to cut any particular kind,
sometimes reaching $5 per cubic foot. If moldings are deeply undercut,
an extra price will have to be charged.

In heavy work, where the amount of stock is large compared with the
amount of dressing, deductions may be made that sometimes amount to as
much as 20 per cent. Rock-face work is somewhat more expensive than
plain, dressed work because the projecting rock surface requires more
stock; therefore, about 10 per cent. should be added.

It is customary to leave stone roughly cut to shape for carving in
the wall, and therefore the sculptor determines the value from the
drawings and includes the cost of models, which must be approved by the
architect before the work is cut. Circular work, if plain, costs about
the same as square work, but if fluted or reeded, as in the case of
columns, it may cost as much as 50 per cent. additional.

=31.= Compared with limestone, the prices of other soft stones are as
follows:

COST OF FOR CUTTING
STOCK PER CENT.

Connecticut brownstone $1.25 20
Long Meadow brownstone 1.25 30
Portage red stone 1.05 30
Vermont or Georgia white marble 2.15 50
Pennsylvania blue marble 2.00 50
Bluestone .80 30

No definite price can be given for marble, as it comes in different
grades and varieties.

The prices of stock just given are for stones of common size. If
extra-large or extra-long stones are required, their price per cubic
foot will be greater.

The cost of transportation from the quarries also influences the price
of stone. This cost will vary according to the distance of the quarry
from the location where the stone is to be used. The cost of hauling
stone from the yard and setting it in the wall runs from 40 to 50 cents
per cubic foot.

=32. Granite.=—Final estimates of cut granite by the cubic foot
are seldom made, although approximate estimates are often made in
that way by comparing a proposed piece of work with a similar one
already completed. The reason for not making final estimates is that
every additional molding or break in granite work affects the cost
considerably, differing greatly in this respect from soft stone.

The first note to be made by the estimator is in regard to the cost
of material. Good granite, in dimension sizes, can be obtained from
southern quarries by rail for 65 cents per cubic foot, delivered. The
same expenditure will buy very good eastern granite where through
water transportation is available. If, however, the granite specified
is such that it must be obtained from eastern quarries having only
rail facilities for shipment, an addition of 40 or 50 cents per cubic
foot will be required. There are also some special grades of granite
that cost $1.50 or more per foot. In shipping granite, the railroads
usually allow 8 cubic yards to the car. Granite for monumental purposes
costs from $1.25 to $5 per foot, according to the size and quality. At
wholesale, the price first mentioned, namely, 65 cents per cubic foot,
will buy as good, substantial, and handsome material as will generally
be required.

=33.= Machinery is used extensively for cutting plain faces in granite,
and also to some extent for moldings and carved work. Every line in
granite is costly to cut and must be computed separately. For instance,
a plain face 12 inches wide, if cut by machinery, will cost 45 cents
per square foot, while if cut by hand, where the machine cannot be
applied, it will cost 60 cents. A 2-inch bevel, as shown at _a_, Fig.
3, will cost 50 cents per linear foot additional. A scotia, as shown at
_b_, or other molding, as at _c_, will cost 60 cents per linear foot
additional for each member.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

All returns, no matter how small, must be counted as not less than 1
foot. Circular work costs from 50 to 100 per cent. more than straight
work. Flutes or reeds in columns are very expensive, and must be
calculated in each case according to the width and depth. All beads and
joints should be counted at say 30 cents per square foot. All notches
or rabbets are counted separately, according to shape and size.

The preceding prices are based on what is called patent-hammered,
six-cut work. Eight-cut work will cost 15 per cent. more, and ten-cut
work, which is seldom used in ordinary building work, brings $1 per
square foot. Rock-face work in granite is cheaper than hammered work.
A good, clean rock face should be counted at 20 cents per square foot.
Axed, or peen-hammered, work is between rock face and six cut.

Polishing plain surfaces costs $1 per square foot in addition to the
cost of cutting, surfaces having widths of 4 inches and under counting
as 6 inches, and those over 6 inches up to 12 inches counting as 1 foot.

BRICKWORK

=34. Brickwork= is generally estimated by the thousand bricks laid in
the wall, but measurements by the cubic yard and the perch are also
used. The following data will be useful in calculating the number
of bricks in a wall. For each superficial, or square, foot of wall
4 inches (the width of one brick) in thickness, allow 7½ bricks;
for a 9-inch (the width of two bricks) wall, count 15 bricks; for a
13-inch (the width of three bricks) wall, allow 22½ bricks; and so on,
estimating 7½ bricks for each additional 4 inches in thickness of the
wall. The preceding figures are for bricks about 8½ in. × 4 in. × 2¼
in. in size. If smaller bricks are used, the thickness of the walls
will be decreased proportionately.

If brickwork is estimated by the cubic yard, allow 500 bricks to a
yard. This figure is based on the use of bricks of the size just
given and mortar joints not over ⅜ inch thick. If the joints are ⅛
inch thick, as in face brickwork, 1 cubic yard will require about 575
bricks. In making calculations of the number of bricks required, an
allowance of, say, 5 per cent. should be made for waste in breakage,
etc.

The practice in regard to deductions for openings is not uniform
throughout the United States, but, usually, small openings are counted
solid, as the cost of the extra labor and the waste in working around
these places balances that of the brickwork saved. All large openings,
100 square feet or over in area, should be deducted. When openings are
measured solid, it is not customary to allow extra compensation for
arches, pilasters, corbels, etc.

Rubbed and ornamental brickwork should be measured separately, and
charged for at a special rate.

DATA ON BRICKWORK

=35.= The following estimates on the cost of brickwork are very
carefully compiled, and will be found trustworthy. It should be
understood that the prices will vary with the cost of materials and
labor; the proportions, however, will be constant. The figures are
based on _kiln_, or actual, count; that is, with deductions for
openings. When the work is measured with no deductions for openings,
the cost per thousand may be assumed as about 15 per cent. less than
the prices given, which are exclusive of scaffolding, hoisting, and
builder’s profit. The scaffolding will cost, according to conditions of
the structure and site, from 5 to 7 per cent. of the prices given.

COST OF COMMON BRICKWORK PER THOUSAND BRICKS

_Using 1-to-3 Lime Mortar_
1,000 bricks $8.00
2 bushels of lime, at 25 cents per bushel .50
½ cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard .75
Bricklayer, 8 hours, at 55 cents per hour 4.40
Laborer, 8 hours, at 25 cents per hour 2.00
------
Total $15.65

_Using 1-to-3 Portland-Cement Mortar_
1,000 bricks $8.00
1 barrel of Portland cement 2.00
½ cubic yard of sand .75
Bricklayer, 8 hours, at 55 cents per hour 4.40
Laborer, 8 hours, at 25 cents per hour 2.00
------
Total $17.15

_Using 1-to-4 Lime-and-Cement Mortar_
1,000 bricks $8.00
¾ bushel of lime, at 25 cents per bushel .19
½ cubic yard of sand .75
⅔ barrel of cement, at $2 per barrel 1.34
Bricklayer, 8 hours, at 55 cents per hour 4.40
Laborer, 8 hours, at 25 cents per hour 2.00
------
Total $16.68

COST OF STRAIGHT, PRESSED BRICKWORK, PER THOUSAND BRICKS

_Using Lime-Putty Mortar_
1,000 pressed bricks, cost from $20 to $40 (average) $30.00
1½ bushels of lime .38
¼ cubic yard of fine sand .38
Bricklayer, 27 hours, at 60 cents per hour 16.20
Laborer, 27 hours, at 25 cents per hour 6.75
------
Total $53.71

ESTIMATING BRICKWORK

=36.= The following figures and method of estimating brickwork were
supplied by an estimator of a large eastern contractor. The prices
given include office expense and builder’s profit. The wages per hour
on which these figures are based are: Bricklayers, 65 cents; hod
carriers, 25 cents; and common laborers, 18 cents.

Following are mentioned four distinct classes of brick buildings, and
in Table IV are given the labor prices per thousand brick for the
various stories of buildings of these classes.

1. Absolutely plain factory buildings.

2. Factory or office buildings broken up with a few
pilasters and other projections; stretcher-brick
facing, neatly cleaned down and pointed.

3. Office buildings of fairly ornamental type, well
broken up with pilasters, projecting courses, etc.,
with pressed-brick facing.

4. Highly ornamental brick buildings, molded cornices,
pilasters, raised quoins, sunk molded panels, and
numerous flat and segmental arches.

TABLE IV

LABOR PRICES PER THOUSAND BRICK FOR
FOUR CLASSES OF BRICK BUILDINGS

=================+=========+=========+========+=========
Part of Building | Class 1 | Class 2 | Class 3| Class 4
-----------------+---------+---------+--------+---------
Basement | $ 7.50 | $ 7.50 | $ 8.50 | $ 9.50
First floor | 8.00 | 9.00 | 10.50 | 13.50
Second floor | 8.50 | 10.00 | 11.00 | 14.00
Third floor | 9.00 | 10.50 | 11.50 | 14.50
Fourth floor | 9.50 | 11.00 | 12.00 | 15.00
Fifth floor | 10.00 | 11.50 | 12.50 | 15.50
Sixth floor | 11.00 | 12.00 | 13.00 | 16.00
=================+=========+=========+========+=========

The prices in the table include the cost of mortar. If the cost of
brick at building is added, the result will be the total cost of
brickwork exclusive of scaffolding. The average price of total brick
labor in buildings of class 1 is $8.50; of class 2, $9.50; of class 3,
$11.50; and of class 4, $14.

=37.= The following miscellaneous brick prices, including labor and
mortar, but not brick, are from the same source as the prices given in
the preceding article, and are based on the same condition, the prices
being in bricks per thousand:

For heavy basement walls and similar masses
of brickwork $ 7.00
For 18-inch brick walls not over two or three
stories high, in hard brick with struck joints 8.00
Same as above, but for 13-inch walls 9.00
For 18-inch brick walls, as above, but faced
on one side with pressed brick 12.00
For 18-inch brick walls, as above, but faced on
both sides with pressed brick 16.50
For 13-inch brick walls, as above, but faced
one side with pressed brick 14.00
For 13-inch brick walls, as above, but faced
both sides with pressed brick 14.00
Add to above, if of English or Flemish
bond, on entire cost of wall .50
If work is broken up into light piers, requiring
a lot of plumbing, add to cost of wall as above 1.50
If a large number of segmental arches must
be turned, add to total cost of wall 1.00

In addition to the preceding schedule two useful rules to remember are:
For pressed-brick segmental arches, add for labor 1½ times the cost of
bricks; for pressed-brick arches requiring radial brick, add for labor
twice the cost of straight, pressed brick. As radial brick are shipped
to the building in barrels and have to be unpacked and laid out on the
full-sized diagram on the floor, it will be found that the rate given
is not excessive.

For brick vault arches, the cost of labor, exclusive of mortar, will be
about $5 per thousand brick. If pointed underneath, 7 cents per square
foot will have to be added. If the centers are left in place until the
mortar has set, it will be necessary to rake out the joints and wet
them before pointing. This will cost about 10 cents per square foot.

TERRA-COTTA WORK

=38. Terra-Cotta Floor Arches.=—The cost of =terra-cotta floor arches=
varies somewhat with the span and with the difficulties encountered
in putting up and removing the centering. If the building consists of
a number of stories, the centering that is used on one floor may be
reused on a floor several stories higher up, in this way decreasing the
outlay for centerings. For ordinary spans, the following analysis of
the cost of a 12-inch arch, exclusive of the cost of the terra cotta
itself, will be found quite accurate, provided the centering is put up
by experienced laborers. The price given is per square foot of arch.

CENTS
Centering 3
Hoisting and laying 3½
Mortar ½
-----
Total 7

This price is for work showing a flat ceiling. If the ceiling is much
broken up by girders, the price, exclusive of the terra cotta itself,
will be about 8 cents per square foot.

As a price per square foot, including the cost of terra cotta, setting,
and mortar, the following figures may be taken. These, however, do not
include the cost of plastering, or of any concrete fill above the terra
cotta.

CENTS
10-inch arches 23
12-inch arches 25
15-inch arches 29

=39. Terra-Cotta Partitions.=—In office buildings, =terra-cotta
partitions= are usually erected on top of a floor in order to divide
the space into such rooms as will suit the tenants. This work is
generally done after the building is otherwise completed. An analysis
of the cost of such partitions is given in Table V.

TABLE V

COST OF TERRA-COTTA PARTITIONS
=========+===============+=============+==============
Thickness|Cost of Setting|Cost of Terra|Total Cost per
Inches | per Square | Cotta per | Square Foot
|Foot, Including| Square Foot | Cents
| Mortar | Cents |
| Cents | |
---------+---------------+-------------+--------------
3 | 5 | 9 | 14
4 | 5 | 10 | 15
6 | 6 | 12 | 18
10 | 8 | 16 | 24
=========+===============+=============+==============

The cost of placing 8-inch, terra-cotta backing to brickwork is 6 cents
per square foot.

TILING

=40.= Although not always of a brick or terra-cotta nature, it will be
found more convenient to consider all =tiling= together and at the same
time that the cost of brickwork is taken up.

Only very general figures can be given on the cost of tiling, as this
cost depends considerably on the design to be carried out. The cost per
square foot of various styles of tile laid in place is as follows:

Moravian tile floors $1.50
Interlocking, rubber tile floors 1.50
Columbia marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored
border, tile laid straight on floor .50
Columbia marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored
border, tile laid diagonally on floor .60
Italian marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored
border, tile laid straight on floor .70
Italian marble tile, 12" × 12", with colored
border, tile laid diagonally on floor .80
Terrazzo and marble mosaic border .38 to .40
Common, white tile in vertical locations, as
lining for elevator shafts, etc. .40
Marble mosaic ceiling work 3.00
Marble and glass mosaic ceiling work 8.00
2-inch book tile (laying only) .04
3-inch book tile (laying only) .04
Shoe tile (laying only) .06

MACKITE

=41. Mackite= is a fireproofing material used for partitions in very
much the same way as terra cotta. As this material is put in place by
bricklayers, its cost will be taken up here.

Where there are many openings, two bricklayers and one laborer can set
240 square feet of mackite in 8 hours; in a straight wall, without
openings, these same men can set about 400 square feet. The market
price for 2" × 12" × 30" blocks is 6 cents per square foot; for blocks
3 inches thick, it is 8 cents per square foot. The average price for
both material and labor for 2-inch mackite is 10 cents per square foot;
for 3-inch material it is about 12 cents per square foot.

CARPENTRY

=42. Carpentry= should include general framing, roofs, floor joists,
partitions, sheathing, flooring, furring, and plastering grounds.

=43. Board Measure.=—The rough lumber used in framing is measured by
the =board foot=, which means a piece 12 inches square and 1 inch
thick. Lumber is always sold on a basis of a thousand feet =board
measure=. The customary abbreviation for the latter term is B. M.; that
for _thousand_ is M. Thus, 500 feet board measure, costing $27 per
thousand, would be written: 500 ft. B. M., at $27 per M.

To obtain the number of board feet in any piece of timber, the length,
in inches, should be multiplied by the end area, in square inches, and
the result divided by 144. For example, the number of feet B. M. in a
floor joist 20 feet long, 3 inches thick, and 10 inches deep is 240
inches (=20 feet × 12) multiplied by 30 square inches (the end area)
divided by 144, or 50.

The following rule is used by most contractors and lumber dealers:
_Multiply the length in feet by the thickness and width in inches, and
divide the product by 12._ Thus, a scantling 26 feet long, 2 inches
thick, and 6 inches wide contains

26 × 2 × 6
---------- = 26 feet B. M.
12

This rule, expressed in a slightly different manner, is more convenient
for mental computation: _Divide the product of the width and thickness
in inches by 12, and multiply the quotient by the length in feet._
Thus, a 2" × 10" plank, 18 feet long, contains

2 × 10
------- = 30 feet B. M.
12 × 18

=44. Prices of Lumber.=—Owing to the continual variation in the prices
and grades of lumber, it is impossible to give prices here that will
not vary from day to day. The architect before starting to estimate
should first be sure that he has the latest lumber prices obtainable.
These prices can always be secured from the local lumber dealer.

=45. Studs.=—To calculate the number of =studs=—set on 16-inch
centers—the following rule may be used: _From the length of the
partition, in feet, deduct one-fourth, and to this result add 1. Count
the number of returns, or corners, on the plan, where double studding
is required, and add 2 studs for each such return._ (The reason for
adding 1 is to include the stud at the end, which would otherwise
be omitted.) The sills, plates, and double studs must be measured
separately.

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

For example, the number of studs required for partitions only, shown on
the plan, Fig. 4, is computed in the following manner.

30 ft. 6 in.
10 ft. 6 in.
9 ft. 6 in.
5 ft. 0 in.
4 ft. 6 in.
------------
60 ft. 0 in.

Deducting one-quarter from 60 feet,
the remainder is 45 feet; adding
1 stud, the result is 46 feet. As
there are 4 returns, with 2 studs
for each, as shown at _a a_, the
total number is
46 + (4 × 2) = 54 studs.

As a general rule, when (as is customary) the studs are set at
_16-inch_ centers, _1 stud for each foot_ in length of partition will
be a sufficient allowance to include sills, plates, and double studs.
Thus, if the total length of partitions is 75 feet, 75 studs will
be sufficient for sills, double studs, etc. If the studs are set at
_12-inch_ centers, the number required will be equal to the _number
of feet in length of partition plus one-fourth_. Thus, if the length
of partitions is 72 feet, 72 + 18, or 90, studs will include those
required for sills, plates, etc.

The same rules may be used for calculating the number of joists,
rafters, tie-beams, etc.

A good way to estimate bridging is to allow 3 cents apiece, or 6 cents
per pair; this will be sufficient to furnish and set a pair made of 2"
× 3" spruce or hemlock stuff.

=46. Sheathing.=—To calculate =sheathing= or =rough flooring= (not
matched), find the number of feet B. M. required to cover the
surface, making no deductions for door or window openings, because
what is gained in openings is lost in waste. If the sheathing is laid
horizontally, only the actual measurement is necessary; but if it is
laid diagonally, add 8 or 10 per cent. to the actual area.

=47. Flooring.=—In estimating =matched flooring=, a square foot of
⅞-inch stuff is considered to be 1 foot B. M. If the flooring is 3
inches or more in width, add one-quarter to the actual number of board
feet, to allow for waste of material in forming the tongue and groove;
if less than 3 inches wide, add one-third. Flooring of 1⅛-inch finished
thickness is considered to be 1¼ inches thick, and for calculating it
the following rule may be used: _Increase the surface measure 50 per
cent._ (This consists of 25 per cent. for extra thickness over I inch,
and 25 per cent. for waste in tonguing and grooving.) To this amount
add 5 per cent. for waste in handling and fitting.

In figuring the area of floors, openings for stairs, fireplaces, etc.
should be deducted.

=48. Weather Boarding, or Siding.=—In measuring =weather boarding=,
or =siding=, the superficial, or square, foot is usually employed. No
deduction should be made for ordinary window or door openings, as these
usually balance the waste in cutting and fitting. Careful attention
must be given to the allowance for lap. If 6-inch, nominal width
(actual width, 5⅝ inches), siding, laid with 1-inch lap, is used, add
one-quarter to the actual area of the space to be covered, in order to
obtain the number of square feet of siding required. If 4-inch stuff is
used, add one-third to the actual area. When, as previously noted, no
allowance is made for openings, the corner and baseboards need not be
figured separately.

=49. Cornices.=—As a general rule, cornices are measured by the running
foot, the molded and plain members being taken separately. A good
method of figuring cornices is as follows: _Measure the girth, or
outline, and allow 1½ cents for each inch of girth, per linear foot._
This price will pay for material and for setting, the cost of the mill
work being estimated at 50 per cent.

=50. Cost per Square Foot.=—For all classes of materials that enter
into the general framing and covering of a building, a close estimate
may be made by analyzing the cost per square foot of surface; that is,
the cost of labor and materials—studs and sheathing in walls, joists
and flooring in floors, etc.—required for a definite area should be
closely determined, and this cost divided by the area considered, will
give the price per square foot. If the corresponding whole area is
multiplied by the figure thus obtained, the result will, of course,
be the cost of that portion of the work. While the usual custom is to
adopt a uniform rate for the various grades of work, a careful analysis
will show that roof sheathing, where the roof is much cut up, costs
more in place than wall sheathing, owing to its position; also that the
studs in walls and partitions cost more than floor joists, as they are
lighter and require more handling.

The following example shows how to determine the cost per square foot
of flooring and indicates the general method to be pursued in similar
cases. The area used in the calculation is a square, or 100 square
feet. The cost of labor is estimated at 40 per cent. of that of the
materials, as it has been shown by experience that this allowance is a
very close approximation to the actual cost of general carpenter work.

COST OF FINISHED FLOOR PER SQUARE
Joists, hemlock, 8 pieces, 3" × 10" × 10',
200 feet B. M., at $27 per M. $ 5.40
Bridging, hemlock, 7 sets, 2" × 3" × 1' 4",
9 feet B. M., at $27 per M. .24
Rough flooring, hemlock, ⅛ inch thick, laid
diagonally, 100 ft. + 25 ft. + 10 ft.,
135 feet B. M., at $25 per M. 3.38
Finished flooring, No. 2, white pine, ⅞ inch
thick, 125 feet B. M., at $45 per M. 5.63
Nails, eightpenny (about) 3 pounds, at $2.50
per 100 pounds .08
Labor, 40 per cent. of cost of materials 5.89
------
Total cost for 100 square feet $20.62

Cost per square foot, $20.62 ÷ 100 = 21 cents.

A similar method may be followed in estimating the cost of interior
finish, paneling, doors, etc.

=51. Work of a Carpenter per Day.=—The quantity of material that a
workman can put in place in a day is very uncertain, as it depends on
the skill of the man and the ease or difficulty of the work, both being
somewhat modified by circumstances. The figures given in Table VI,
while founded on information gained by many years of experience, are
only intended to give an idea of the relative quantities and are not a
standard to be adhered to in all cases. The estimates are based on an
8-hour day and wages at $3.20 per day. If the hours or pay are less or
greater in various localities than the prices given, the results will
be correspondingly diminished or increased.

TABLE VI

=52. Cost of Laying Flooring.=—The figures on flooring given in Table
VII will be found useful in calculating as they are based on a square,
which, as previously stated, is equal to 100 square feet. The same
carpenters’ wages and number of working hours as in the preceding
article are used here.

TABLE VII

=53. Miscellaneous Carpentry Items.=—In Table VIII is given the cost
of several items of carpentry, such as setting window and door frames,
furring brick walls, etc. The prices are based on the same wages and
hours as in the two preceding articles.

TABLE VIII

=54. Nails.=—To calculate the quantity of nails required in executing
any portion of the work, Table IX, which is based on the use of cut
nails, will be found useful.

TABLE IX

QUANTITY OF NAILS REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES
======================================+========+=================
Material | Pounds |Kind of Nails and
|Required| Size in Pennies
--------------------------------------+--------+-----------------
1,000 shingles | 5 | 4
1,000 laths, 4 nails to a lath | 7 | 3, fine
1,000 laths, 6 nails to a lath | 9 | 3, fine
1,000 sq. ft. beveled siding | 18 | 6
1,000 sq. ft. sheathing | 20 | 8
1,000 sq. ft. sheathing | 25 | 10
1,000 sq. ft. flooring, rough | 30 | 8
1,000 sq. ft. flooring, rough | 40 | 10
| |
1,000 sq. ft. studding | 15 | 10
| 5 | 20
| |
1,000 sq. ft. furring, 1" × 2" | 10 | 10
1,000 sq. ft. ⅞" finished flooring | 20 | 8 to 10, finish
1,000 sq. ft. 1⅛" finished flooring | 30 | 10, finish
======================================+========+=================

ROOFING

=55. Kinds of Roof Covering.=—The =roof coverings= most generally used
are shingles, slate, tin, tile, and tarred paper and gravel (known as
gravel roofing). While there are slight variations in the methods of
measuring the different kinds, they are all based on the square of 100
square feet.

=56. Shingles.=—In measuring =shingle roofing=, it is necessary to
know the exposed length of a shingle. This is found by deducting 3
inches (the usual cover over the head of the lowest shingle in the four
overlapping courses) from the length and dividing the remainder by 3.
Thus, in Fig. 5, the distance _b_ that one shingle is overlapped by the
third above it is usually made equal to 3 inches, and the remaining
length of the lowest shingle may be divided into three equal portions,
each equal to _a_. The lowest of these three portions is the part
exposed to the weather. Multiplying the length exposed to the weather
by the average width of a shingle will give the exposed area. Dividing
14,400, the number of square inches in a square, by the exposed area
of 1 shingle, in square inches, will give the number of shingles
required to cover 100 square feet of roof. For example, it is required
to compute the number of shingles 18 in. × 4 in. needed to cover 100
square feet of roof. With a shingle of this length, the exposure will be

18 - 3
------ = 5 inches;
3

then, the exposed area of 1 shingle is 4 in. × 5 in., or 20 square
inches, and 1 square requires 14,400 ÷ 20 = 720 shingles.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

An allowance should always be made for waste in estimating the number
of shingles required.

Table X is arranged for shingles from 15 to 27 inches in length, 4 and
6 inches in width, and for various lengths of exposure.

=57.= Shingles are classed as _shaved_, or _breasted_, and _sawed
shingles_.

=Shaved shingles= have fallen almost into disuse, owing to the
difficulty of manufacturing them. These shingles vary from 18 to 30
inches in length, and are about ½ inch thick at the butt and ¹/₁₆ inch
at the top.

=Sawed shingles= are usually from 14 to 18 inches long and of various
thicknesses. In the case of 18-inch shingles, five shingles, at their
butts, will make 2¼ inches; that is, the thickness of one shingle at
the butt is 2¼ ÷ 5 = .45, or about ⁷/₁₆ inch. At the top, each shingle
is ¹/₁₆ inch thick. With 16-inch shingles, however, five of them make
only 2 inches. Therefore, the thickness of a 16-inch shingle at the
butt is 2 ÷ 5 = .4, or about ⅜, inch.

TABLE X

DATA FOR ESTIMATING SHINGLES
===========+===========================+===========================
| Number of Square Feet of |Number of Shingles Required
Exposure to| Roof Covered by 1,000 | for 100 Square Feet
Weather | Shingles | of Roof
Inches +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
|4 Inches Wide|6 Inches Wide|4 Inches Wide|6 Inches Wide
-----------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
4 | 111 | 167 | 900 | 600
5 | 139 | 208 | 720 | 480
6 | 167 | 250 | 600 | 400
7 | 194 | 291 | 514 | 343
8 | 222 | 333 | 450 | 300
===========+=============+=============+=============+=============

White-pine and white-cedar shingles are graded alike. The shingles made
of No. 1, or clear, stock are designated XXXX. Those made of No. 2
stock, with 6-inch clear butt, are given the brand XX, while those made
of mill cull, with sound butt, are called X.

Red-cedar shingles are graded differently. Their grade depends on their
length. Thus, 18-inch, No. 1 shingles are termed “Perfection,” while
18-inch, thin butt are termed “Eureka.” Red-cedar shingles 16 inches
long, if made of No. 1, or clear, stock, are designated “Extra * A *.”
If they are 16-inch, thin butt, they are termed simply “* A *.”

Sawed shingles are made up into bundles of 250, and are sold on a basis
of 4 inches width for each shingle. Shingles cost from $4 to $6.75 per
thousand, according to material and grade. Dimension shingles—those
cut to a uniform width—if of prime cedar, shaved, ½ inch thick at the
butt and ¹/₁₆ inch at the top, will cost about $7.75 per thousand, but
since such shingles are usually 6 inches wide, less will be required
per square.

A fairly good workman will lay about 1,000 shingles per day of 8 hours,
on straight, plain work; while in working around hips and valleys, the
average will be about 700 per day.

=58. Slating.=—In measuring =slating=, the method of determining the
number of slates required per square is similar to that given for
shingling; but in slating, each course overlaps only two of the courses
below, instead of three, as in shingling. The usual lap, or cover, of
the lowest course of slate by the uppermost of the two overlapping
courses, is 3 inches; hence, to find the exposed length, deduct the
lap from the length of the slate, and divide the remainder by 2. The
exposed area is the width of the slate multiplied by this exposed
length, and the number of slates required per square is found by
dividing 14,400 by the exposed area of 1 slate in square inches. Thus,
if 14" × 20" slates are to be used, the exposed length will be

20 - 3
------ = 8½ inches;
2

the exposed area will be 14 × 8½ = 119 square inches; and the number
per square will be 14,400 ÷ 119 = 121 slates.

The following points should be observed in measuring slating: Eaves,
hips, valleys, and cuttings against walls are measured extra, 1
foot wide by their whole length, the extra charge being made for
waste of material and the increased labor required in cutting and
fitting. Openings less than 3 square feet are not deducted, and all
cuttings around them are measured extra. Extra charges are also made
for borders, figures, and any change in color of the work; and for
steeples, towers, and perpendicular surfaces.

Table XI, which is based on a lap of 3 inches, gives the sizes of the
American slates and the number of pieces required per square. The cost
of slating varies from 9 to 15 cents per square foot, depending on the
class of work.

The thickness of stock slate varies from five to 1 inch to ⅜ inch
and special thicknesses up to 1 inch are made to order. For ordinary
dwellings, the usual thickness used is five to 1 inch, which gives a
thickness of a little more than ³/₁₆ inch, and the size used for this
class of work is generally 8 in. × 12 in. or 9 in. × 18 in., the price
being the same.

TABLE XI

NUMBER OF SLATES PER SQUARE
========+=========+=========+=========+=========+=========
Size |Number of| Size |Number of| Size |Number of
Inches | Pieces | Inches | Pieces | Inches | Pieces
--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
6 × 12 | 533 | 9 × 16 | 246 | 14 × 20 | 121
7 × 12 | 457 | 10 × 16 | 221 | 11 × 22 | 138
8 × 12 | 400 | 9 × 18 | 213 | 12 × 22 | 126
9 × 12 | 355 | 10 × 18 | 192 | 13 × 22 | 116
7 × 14 | 374 | 11 × 18 | 174 | 14 × 22 | 108
8 × 14 | 327 | 12 × 18 | 160 | 12 × 24 | 114
9 × 14 | 291 | 10 × 20 | 169 | 13 × 24 | 105
10 × 14 | 261 | 11 × 20 | 154 | 14 × 24 | 98
8 × 16 | 277 | 12 × 20 | 141 | 16 × 24 | 86
========+=========+=========+=========+=========+=========

In Table XII is given a list of the different colors of slate used
in the Eastern and Middle States, the quarries from which they are
obtained, and the cost of slate, labor, etc. per square, pertaining to
each variety. The prices in the table are based on the 8 in. × 12 in.
or 9 in. × 18 in. sizes, thickness five to 1 inch, and for quantities
of not less than 50 squares. The cost of labor, etc. being based on
current prices in the aforementioned territory.

Slate ¼ inch thick cost about 20 per cent. more than the five to 1 inch
for the material, and about 5 per cent. more for laying and freight.

Slate ⅜ inch thick cost about 45 per cent. more than the five to 1 inch
for the material, and about 15 per cent. more for laying and freight.

When copper nails are specified obtain current prices.

TABLE XII

APPROXIMATE COST OF SLATING, PER SQUARE
==================================+========+=========+============
| | Cost of |
|Cost of | Laying, | Total Cost,
Classification | Slate |Including| Exclusive
|F. O. B.| Roofing |of Builder’s
|Quarries|Felt, and| Profit
| | Freight |
----------------------------------+--------+---------+------------
_Black Slate_ | | |
Brownville, Maine | $8.00 | $5.00 | $13.00
Monson, Maine | 7.00 | 5.00 | 12.00
Peach Bottom, Pennsylvania | 5.50 | 4.00 | 9.50
Chapman (Hard Vein), Pennsylvania | 4.50 | 3.50 | 8.00
Bangor, Pennsylvania | 4.50 | 3.50 | 8.00
Lehigh, Pennsylvania | 4.00 | 3.50 | 7.50
Buckingham, Virginia | 3.75 | 4.00 | 7.75
_Red Slate_ | | |
Vermont | 12.00 | 4.25 | 16.25
_Green Slate_ | | |
Vermont | 5.50 | 4.25 | 9.75
_Purple Slate_ | | |
Vermont | 5.00 | 4.25 | 9.25
_Mottled Slate_ | | |
Vermont (Purple and Green) | 4.00 | 4.25 | 8.25
==================================+========+=========+============

=59. Sheet-Metal Roofs.=—In estimating sheet-metal roofs, the hips and
valleys are measured extra their entire length by 1 foot in width, to
compensate for increased labor and waste of material in cutting and
laying. Gutters and conductor pipes, or leaders, are measured by the
linear foot, 1 foot extra being added for each angle. All flashings
and crestings are measured by the linear foot. No deductions are made
for openings (chimneys, skylights, ventilators, or dormer-windows) if
they are less than 50 square feet in area; if between 50 and 100 square
feet, one-half the area is deducted; if over 100 square feet, the
whole opening is deducted. An extra charge is made for labor and waste
of material to flash around openings.

=60.= There are two regular sizes of roofing plates, namely, 20 in. ×
28 in. and 14 in. × 20 in. The larger size is generally used on common
work, owing to the fact that it requires fewer seams on the roof and
consequently cheapens the cost of laying. A third size, namely, 10
in. × 20 in., is also supplied, and is used generally for gutters and
leader pipes. Sheets 10 in. X 14 in. are sometimes used for laying
roofs, as they can be cleated better than the larger sizes. Such small
sheets, however, cost more to lay.

Two thicknesses of roofing plates are commonly recognized. One is the
IC, or No. 29 gauge, and weighs 8 ounces to the square foot; the other
is the IX, or No. 27 gauge, and weighs 10 ounces to the square foot.
Sometimes, a still heavier plate is called for, and it is therefore
kept in stock by the best manufacturers. This plate is known as IXX, or
No. 26 gauge, and is used for especially heavy work.

Formerly, the standard net weight per box of IC, 14" × 20" roofing tin
was 112 pounds, or 1 pound per sheet, making 112 sheets to the box;
but now this weight is reduced to 108 pounds. The old standard for IX
plates was 140 pounds, but very few brands now weigh more than 135
pounds per box. The most reliable manufacturers guarantee the weights
for the different boxes of tin, and if the material does not come up
to the guaranteed weight, it can be returned. The best sheets in the
market today are stamped with the mark of the brand and the designation
IC or IX of the thickness.

=61.= Using standing joints, a 14" × 20" sheet of roofing tin will
cover about 235 square inches of surface, or one box of such tin will
cover about 182 square feet. With a flat, lock seam, a sheet will cover
255 square inches, allowing ⅜ inch all around for joints; or a box will
lay 198 square feet. These figures make no allowance for waste.

Two good workmen can put on from 250 to 300 square feet of tin roofing
per day of 8 hours; this also includes painting the outside of the
tin. Tin roofing will cost from 8 to 10 cents per square foot,
depending on the quality of material and workmanship.

=62. Tile Roofs.=—Since =tile roofs= are constructed of so many styles
of tile, no general rules of measurement can be given. Every piece of
work must be estimated according to the particular kind of tile used
and the number of sizes and patterns. Information on all these points
is to be found in the catalogs of tile manufacturers.

TABLE XIII

APPROXIMATE COST OF ROOF TILING, PER SQUARE
=======================================+=========+=========+==========
| | Cost of |Total Cost
Classification | | Laying |Exclusive
| Cost |Including| of
| of Tile | Ashphalt|Builder’s
|Delivered| Felt | Profit
---------------------------------------+---------+---------+----------
Shingle tile (rectangular), 6" × 12" | $13.00 | $ 7.50 | $20.50
Shingle tile (rectangular), 8" × 12" | 14.00 | 6.50 | 20.50
Shingle tile (geometric shapes) | 12.00 | 7.00 | 19.00
Conosera (interlocking), 8" × 12" | 14.00 | 5.50 | 19.50
Conosera (interlocking), 10" × 15" | 12.00 | 5.00 | 17.00
Conosera, combination 8" × 12" | | |
and 2" × 12" | 16.50 | 8.00 | 24.50
French A (interlocking), size 10" × 15"| 12.00 | 5.00 | 17.00
Spanish, 8" × 12" | 13.00 | 6.50 | 19.50
Old Spanish, semicircular, channels | | |
laid alternately, concave and convex | 22.50 | 10.00 | 32.50
Roman, pan and semicircular roll, | | |
laid 7½ in. center to center of rolls| 17.00 | 8.00 | 25.00
Greek, pan and semihexagonal cap, | | |
laid 7½ in. center to center of caps | 17.00 | 8.00 | 25.00
Promenade for flat roofs, laid on 5 | | |
layers of asphalt felt in asphalt | | |
pitch | 7.00 | 13.00 | 20.00
=======================================+=========+=========+==========

In Table XIII is given a list of the prevailing styles of roof tiling,
the cost of tiling, labor, etc. per square, pertaining to each variety.
The prices in the table are based on the natural red color of the clay
when burnt; extra prices are asked for glazed-surface finish which can
be obtained in different colors. The prices in the table are based on
quantities of not less than 30 squares, as less than a minimum carload
means increased freight rates. The prices given cover railroad delivery
to points in the Eastern and Middle States. Labor, etc. being based on
current prices.

The above prices are figured on the tile being laid on wooden
sheathing; if laid on book tile or cement add 20 per cent.

If copper nails are used, care must be taken in figuring the number
of nails, as well as their length and gauge, for the special forms of
tile specified. Fluctuating values of copper make this an item of much
importance.

Ridges, hip rolls, barge tile, and finials are charged as extras and
due allowance must be made for cutting at valleys and hips.

=63. Gravel Roofs.=—In =gravel roofing=, the cost per square depends on
the number of thicknesses of tarred felt and the quantity of pitch used
per square. A value of 4 cents per square foot for four thicknesses may
be considered an average.

ROOF MENSURATION

=64.= While a knowledge of how to apply the ordinary principles of
mensuration is all that is necessary to calculate any roof area, yet
the modern house, with its numerous gables and irregular surfaces,
introduces complications that render some further explanation of roof
measurement desirable. The most common error made in figuring roofs—and
one that should be carefully guarded against—is that of using the
apparent length of slopes, as shown by the plan or side elevations,
instead of the true length, as obtained from the end elevations.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

=65.= The area of a plain gable roof, as shown in end and side
elevations in Fig. 6, is found by multiplying the length _g j_ by the
slope length _b d_, and further multiplying by 2, for both sides. The
area of each gable is found by multiplying the width of the gable _a d_
by the altitude _c b_, and dividing by 2.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

=66.= In Fig. 7 is shown the plan and elevation of a hip roof, having a
deck _z_. The pitch of the roof being the same on each side, the line
_c d_ shows the true length of the common rafter _l m_.

In Fig. 8 is shown the method of developing the true lengths of the
hips and the true size of one side of the roof. Let _a b c d_ represent
the same lines as the corresponding ones in Fig. 7. From the line _a
d_, Fig. 8, through _b_ and _c_, draw perpendiculars, as _g h_ and _e
f_; lay off from _g_ and _e_ on these lines, the length of the common
rafter _c d_, Fig. 7, and draw the lines _a h_ and _d f_, Fig. 8; then
the figure _a h f d_ will represent the true shape and size of the side
of the roof shown in the elevation in Fig. 7. The area of the triangle
_d e f_ is equal to the area of the triangle _a g h_ or a similar
triangle _a i h_. Hence, the portion of the roof _a h f d_ is equal in
area to the rectangle _a i f e_, the length of which is half the sum of
the eave and deck lengths, while its breadth is the length of a common
rafter.

=67.= A method of obtaining the lengths of valley rafters, applicable
also to hip rafters, is shown in Fig. 9, which is the plan of a
hip-and-gable roof. To ascertain the length of the valley rafter _a b_,
draw the line _a c_ perpendicular to _a b_ and equal in length to the
altitude of the gable; then draw the line _c b_, which will represent
the true length of the valley rafter _a b_.

=68.= As an example of roof mensuration, the number of square feet of
surface on the roof shown in Fig. 10 will be calculated.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

The area of the triangular portion _a c b_ is equal to the slope length
of _d c_ (found by laying off _c′ c_ equal to the height of the ridge
above the eaves and drawing _c′ d_) multiplied by the length of the
eaves line _a b_ and divided by 2. Multiplying the dimensions 13.5 feet
and 23 feet, respectively, and dividing by 2, the area is found to be
155.3 square feet.

The area of the trapezoid _g f i h_ is half the sum of _f i_ and _g h_
(shown in their true length on the plan) multiplied by the true length
of _h i_. The latter is found by marking the height of the gable _i i′_
on the ridge line, and drawing the line _i′ h_, which measures 10.6
feet. Performing these operations, there results

5 + 14
------ × 10.6 = 100.7 square feet
2

for each side, or 201.4 square feet for both. As each of the side
gables is the same size, the area of the two roofs is 201.4 × 2 = 402.8
square feet.

The area of the polygon _q p n k_ is equal to the triangle _q p w_
minus the triangle _k n w_, the area covered by the intersecting gable
roof. The former is equal to the triangle _a c b_, the area of which
is 155.3 square feet. The area of _k n w_ is equal to half of _n w_,
or 6.5 feet, multiplied by the true length of _k s_ or the altitude of
the triangle; the latter is obtained by laying off _k k′_ equal to the
height of the gable, 5.5 feet, at right angles to _k s_, and drawing _s
k′_, which is the required altitude and which measures almost 7.4 feet.
Then _k n w_ = 6.5 × 7.4 = 48.1 square feet; whence _q p n k_ equals
155.3 - 48.1 = 107.2 square feet.

The area of _a p q c_ is

_a p_ + _q c_
-------------
2

multiplied by the true slope length of _t v_, or _t v′_, which measures
15.2 feet. Substituting dimensions, the area is found to be

6 + 24
------ × 15.2 = 228 square feet.
2

From this deduct the area of _y z u_, which is the portion covered by
the intersecting gable roof. The true length of _t u_ along the slope
is _t u′_, measuring 12 feet; hence, the area of _y z u_ is

14 × 12
------- = 84 square feet.
2

The net area of _a p q c_ is therefore 228 - 84 = 144 square feet; _b c
q w_ being equal to _a p q c_, its area is the same, making the area of
both sides 288 square feet.

The area of _k n m l_ is

_m n_ + _l k_
-------------- × _m l′_,
2

the slope length of _m l_. Substituting dimensions, the area is

11 + 16
------- × 8.5 = 114.8 square feet.
2

As _k l x w_ is equal to _k n m l_, the area of both is 229.6 square
feet.

Adding the partial areas thus obtained, the sum is 155.3 + 402.8 +
107.2 + 288 + 229.6 = 1,182.9 square feet, or approximately 11.9
squares.

PLASTERING

=69. Plastering= on plain surfaces, such as walls and ceilings,
is always measured by the square yard. In determining the cost of
plastering walls and ceilings, measure the surface actually plastered,
making no deduction for grounds or for openings less than 7 superficial
yards. For surfaces of domes or groined ceilings, beams, coves,
paneling, etc., a unit price is fixed by the linear or the superficial
foot, according to the character and disposition of the work. Round
corners and arrises should be measured by the linear foot.

On interior work, increase the price 5 per cent. for each 12 feet above
the floor after the first. For outside work, add 1 per cent. for each
foot above the lower 20 feet. All repairing and patching should be done
at agreed prices.

=70. Stucco Work.=—In estimating =stucco work=, cornices composed of
plain members and panel work are measured by the square foot. Enriched
cornices with carved moldings are measured by the linear foot. When
moldings are less than 12 inches in circumference, measurement is
taken by the linear foot; when over 12 inches, superficial measurement
is used. For internal angles or miters, add 1 foot to the length of
cornice, and for exterior angles add 2 feet to the length. Sections
of cornice less than 12 inches measure as 12 inches. Add one-half for
raking cornices.

For cornices or moldings abutted against a wall or plain surface,
add 1 foot to the length of cornice; if against the soffit of stairs
or other inclined or covered surface, add 2 feet to the length of
cornice. Octagonal, hexagonal, and similar cornices, less than 10 feet
in single stretches, take one and one-half times the length.

For circular or elliptical work, charge double price; for domes and
groins, three prices. Enrichments of all kinds should be estimated at
an agreed price.

=71. Cost of Plastering.=—The following analysis of the cost of
plastering for 100 square yards, for both three-coat and two-coat work,
will be of assistance in making estimates. These costs are exclusive of
the lathing, which will be taken up later.

COST OF 100 SQUARE YARDS OF THREE-COAT PLASTERING

_Scratch Coat_
6 bushels of lime, at 25 cents per bushel $ 1.50
9 pounds of hair, at 4 cents per pound .36
¾ cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard 1.13
5 hours, plasterer’s time, at 50 cents per hour 2.50
5 hours, laborer’s time, at 25 cents per hour 1.25
-------
Total $ 6.74

_Brown Coat_
6 bushels of lime, at 25 cents per bushel $ 1.50
3 pounds of hair, at 4 cents per pound .12
1 cubic yard of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard 1.50
13 hours, plasterer’s time, at 50 cents per hour 6.50
6½ hours, laborer’s time, at 25 cents per hour 1.63
------
Total $11.25

_Finishing Coat_
3½ bushels of finishing lime, at 35 cents per
bushel $ 1.23
½ barrel of plaster of Paris, at $1.75 per barrel .88
⅜ bushel of white sand, at 27 cents per bushel .10
18 hours, plasterer’s time, at 50 cents per hour 9.00
4½ hours, laborer’s time, at 25 cents per hour 1.13
------
Total $12.34

The total cost of 100 square yards of three-coat plaster, then, is
$30.33, or about 31 cents per yard.

COST OF 100 SQUARE YARDS OF TWO-COAT PLASTERING

_Brown Coat_
8 bushels of lime, at 25 cents per bushel $ 2.00
16 pounds of hair, at 4 cents per pound .64
1¼ cubic yards of sand, at $1.50 per cubic yard 1.88
8 hours, plasterer’s time, at 50 cents per hour 4.00
8 hours, laborer’s time, at 25 cents per hour 2.00
------
Total $10.52

_Finishing Coat_
Same as given for three-coat work $12.34

The total cost of 100 square yards of two-coat plaster is therefore
$22.86, or about 23 cents per square yard.

LATHING

=72. Lathing= is measured by the superficial, or square, yard, no
openings under 7 superficial yards being deducted.

Plastering laths are about 1¾ inches wide, ¼ inch thick, and usually
4 feet long, the studding being generally placed 12 or 16 inches on
centers, so that the ends of the laths may be nailed to them. The laths
are usually set from ¼ to ⅜ inch apart, requiring about 1½, 1⁷/₁₆, or
1⅜ four-foot laths, respectively, to cover 1 square foot.

For a fair grade of work, a man will lay on an average about 15
bundles, or 1,500 laths, per day. The price usually paid for laying
laths is 25 cents a bundle.

In the following analysis is given the cost of lathing 100 square yards
of surface:

COST OF LATHING 100 SQUARE YARDS

14⁴/₁₀ bundles of laths, at 55 cents per bundle $ 7.92
9 pounds of threepenny nails,
at $3.65 per hundred pounds .33
Putting on 14⁴/₁₀ bundles,
at 25 cents per bundle 3.60
------
Total $11.85

The total cost of lathing 100 square yards is therefore $11.85, or
about 12 cents per square yard.

JOINERY

=73. Joinery= includes all the interior and exterior finish put in
place after the framing and covering are completed; as, for example,
door and window frames, doors, baseboards, paneling, wainscoting,
stairs, etc. Most of these materials are worked at the mill and are
brought to the building ready to set in place.

=74. Frames.=—In taking off =door= and =window frames=, describe and
state sizes. Measure architraves by the running foot, giving width and
thickness, whether molded or plain, and state the number of plinth and
corner blocks.

=75. Sash.=—For =sash=, state dimensions (giving the width first);
thickness of the material, molded or plain; style of check-rail
and sill finish; thickness of sash bar; whether plain, single or
double-hung; and sizes (giving dimensions in inches) and number of
lights. Use standard sizes as much as possible.

=76. Doors.=—In taking off =doors=, describe and state the sizes and
thicknesses, whether the framing is stuck-molded, raised-molded, or
plain; and number of panels, whether plain or raised. Use stock sizes
wherever possible and suitable. For special work, where doors are to be
veneered, state thickness of veneer, how cores are to be built, and the
kind of wood to be used.

=77. Blinds.=—Describe size and thickness of =blinds=; whether paneled
or slatted (fixed or movable), and whether molded or plain.

=78. Baseboard and Beam Casings.=—Measure the =baseboard= and =beam
casings= by the running foot, stating width and thickness of stuff, and
whether molded or plain. When a shoe is used for the base, so state;
also, if a surbase is required, give particulars.

=79. Wainscoting.=—Measure =wainscoting= by the superficial foot.
State kind of finish, whether paneled or plain, and style of molding
and panels. Wainscoting cap and base, measure by the running foot.

=80. Stairways.=—Often =stairways= are taken by the contractor at so
much per step, complete according to specifications. In measuring
stairways, take off the amount of rough material in carriage timbers,
and the planed lumber in treads, etc. Measure balustrades by the
linear foot. Give description of newels. Measure spandrel and stairway
paneling the same as wainscoting.

=81. Inside Fixtures.=—_Kitchen dressers_ may be taken at a fixed price
complete; or at a fixed rate per square foot; or as dressed lumber,
drawers and doors being taken separately. _Wardrobes_, _bookcases_,
_mantels_, and _china closets_ should be treated separately, and a
fixed price stated.

=82. Porches, Etc.=—_Porches_, _exterior balustrades_, _balconies_,
_porte cochèrs_, etc. may be taken at a price per linear foot, or the
actual quantity of material may be measured.

JOINERY DATA AND EXAMPLES OF ESTIMATING COSTS

=83. Molding.=—Molded work that goes through the mill is usually
charged for by the square inch of section per foot in length. Thus, if
the price is 1 cent per square inch of section per foot in length, a
molding ⅞ in. × 4¾ in. and 12 feet long will cost 60 cents, because the
section in the rough is 1 in. × 5 in., or 5 square inches. Therefore,
1 foot of this molding will cost 5 cents, and 12 feet will cost 60
cents. This method of charging for molding, however, is not altogether
satisfactory, because it requires as much time to put a narrow piece of
molding through the molding machine as it does a wide piece, and a wide
piece, since it will have a larger sectional area, will bring a higher
price.

A molding machine operates at different speeds, being run at a slow
speed when cutting hard woods and at a high speed when cutting soft
woods. A machine will turn out from 900 to 4,800 linear feet of molding
of any width per hour, the 900 feet representing the amount of very
hard wood run through the machine, and the 4,800 feet the amount
of soft wood run through when the machine is speeded up to its full
capacity. The average output of a machine, however, is about 3,000 feet
per hour.

The cost of the machine with a man to operate it may be considered
as 70 cents an hour on an average, the man getting 30 cents per hour
and the machine being charged for at the rate of 40 cents per hour.
Therefore, according to these figures, the cost of machining per linear
foot is only ⁷⁰₃3₀₀₀, or .023 of 1 cent. It will thus be seen that the
actual cost of putting molding through the machine, especially in large
quantities, does not amount to much.

For this reason, especially in the eastern cities, it is cheaper to
buy molding direct from the lumber mill than to buy the rough material
and then run it through the mill at its destination. In nearly every
instance the saving effected in putting the rough material through the
machine at its destination is more than counterbalanced by the extra
cost of freight rates due to the extra weight. For the same reason, in
the eastern market today planed boards are really as cheap as rough
ones, because the planed boards are lighter and thus cost less freight.

The cost of molding is governed almost entirely by the cost of the
raw material, and is always reckoned from a base price of 1 cent per
square inch of section 1 foot long. On this price a discount is given,
depending on the kind of wood and the finish desired. At present an
average discount for soft woods, such as white pine, spruce, cypress,
etc., is about 35 per cent. Thus, the actual cost of pine molding 1
foot long and 1 square inch in cross-section is

35 65
1 - ---- = ---- of 1 cent.
100 100

No discount is given on hard woods in many of the large eastern
cities at present—oak, birch, and the like being figured net. For
walnut, mahogany, and other high-priced woods, a special price is set,
depending on the market and the local prices.

=84. Cost of Window Frames and Windows.=—The following is approximately
the cost of a window frame with two 28" × 28" lights, where all mill
work is priced at ₆₅/₁₀₀ cent per square inch per foot:

COST OF WINDOW FRAME

Jambs at head, ⁵/₄" × 5" × 16' $ .65
Sill, 2" × 5" × 4' 0" .26
Sub-sill, ⁵/₄" × 6" × 2' 9" .14
Blind stop, 1" × 2" × 16' 0" .21
Parting stop, ½" × 1" × 16' 0" .11
Outside casing, ⁵/₄" × 5" × 12' 0" .49
Head casing, ⁵/₄" × 7" × 4' 0" .23
Rabbeted cap, ⁵/₄" × 4" × 4' 0" .13
Molding under cap, 1" × 3½" × 4' 6" .11
Sill nosing, ⁵/₄" × 4" × 4' 0" .13
Inside casing, including apron, 1" × 5" × 20' 0" .65
Back band, ⁵/₄" × ⁵/₄" × 16' 0" .17
Inside stops, ½" × 2" × 14' 0" .10
Four sash pulleys, at 3 cents per pulley .12
Making frame, 1 hour, at 40 cents per hour .40
-----
Total $3.90

The cost of setting and casing such a window frame is about 70 cents.
The total cost of the frame set in place is therefore $3.90 + .70 =
$4.60.

The cost of the frame per square foot of light is therefore

$4.60 × 144
----------- = 43 cents
2 × 28 × 28

=85.= The cost of an ordinary window with two 28" × 28" lights may be
estimated as follows:

COST OF SASH IN PLACE
Cost of two sash, ⁶/₄, double-hung, glazed with
single-thick American glass $2.10
Sash weights, 30 pounds, at 2 cents per pound .60
Cord, 22½ feet, at 1 cent per foot .23
Two sash lifts, at 5 cents each .10
Sash lock .15
Setting and hanging sash .35
-----
Total $3.53

If double American instead of single American glass is used, the cost
just given should be increased by $1.

If the sash is glazed with single American glass, the cost per square
foot of light will be

$3.53 × 144
----------- = 33 cents.
2 × 28 × 28

Therefore, the total cost of window and frame in place is 43 + 33 =
76 cents per square foot. If the sash is glazed with double American
glass, the cost per square foot of light will be

$4.53 × 144
----------- = 42 cents.
2 × 28 × 28

Therefore, in this case the total cost of window and frame will be 43 +
42 = 85 cents per square foot.

For curved sash in curved walls, the cost is about twice as much as
that of straight work.

=86. Cost of Door Frames and Doors.=—The following estimate represents
the cost of an ordinary door frame. All molded work is put in the
estimate at 1 cent per square inch of section per foot of length less
35-per-cent. discount, which is the same thing as ⁶⁵/₁₀₀ cent per
square inch of section per foot.

COST OF A 2' 8" × 6' 8" DOOR FRAME IN PLACE

17 linear feet of ⁵/₄" × 6" rabbeted jambs $ .83
36 linear feet of 1" × 5" casing 1.17
36 linear feet of 1" × 2" back band .47
Dadoing and smoothing jambs and casing,
1 hour, at 40 cents per hour .40
Nails .05
Setting up jambs and casing,,
3 hours at 40 cents per hour 1.20
-----
Total $4.12

The area of the door is 2 ft. 8 in. × 6 ft. 8 in. = 17.78 square feet.
Therefore, the cost of the preceding door frame per square foot of door
is $4.12 ÷ 17.78 = 23 cents.

=87.= The following estimate gives the cost of a door of moderate
price. The size of this door is 2 ft. 8 in. × 6 ft. 8 in. × ⁶/₄ in. It
has four panels, is made of No. 1 pine, and is finished with solid ogee
molding.

COST OF DOOR IN PLACE
Price of door $2.75
Setting door, putting on hinges and lock,
2 hours, at 40 cents per hour .80
1 pair of 4" × 4" japanned-steel butts .16
1 mortise lock, brass-face knobs and escutcheons .70
-----
Total $4.41

If the door is provided with stuck molding instead of solid molding, it
will cost about 50 cents more.

The area of the door is 2 ft. 8 in. × 6 ft. 8 in. = 17.78 square feet.
The cost per square foot is therefore $4.41 ÷ 17.78 = 25 cents. The
total cost of door and frame per square foot of door is therefore 25 +
23 = 48 cents.

=88.= The door just described has no transom. A transom 2 ft. 8 in. ×
16 in., complete, will cost about $1. The area of such a transom is
2 ft. 8 in. × 16 in. = 3⁵/₉ square feet. The cost per square foot is
therefore $1 ÷ 3⁵/₉ = 28 cents.

The prices just given are for solid pine doors. Veneered hardwood doors
are usually made to order. When the contractor bids on a house, the
architect as a rule has not yet detailed the veneered doors; therefore,
the contractor is more or less uncertain as to what will be required
and usually puts in a price that he thinks will cover the cost. In the
eastern part of the United States, for a veneered door, with ¼-inch
veneers built of staved-up cores, a price of from 35 to 50 cents per
square foot will be found adequate. This price does not of course
include the frame.

=89.= There is now on the market a ready-made, veneered birch door
known as the _Korelock door_. In using these doors, it is always
cheaper to make the door frame of the correct size to take stock-size
doors. The price of these doors is quite reasonable. For a 2' 8" × 6'
8" × ⁶/₄" door, with six cross-panels, the price is $2.80 for ⅛-inch
veneer; if the door is ⁷/₄ instead of ⁶/₄ inch, the price is $3.25.
This price of course includes no hardware or frame. A 2' 8" × 6' 8" ×
⁶/₄" two-panel door costs $3.30, and if ⁷/₄ inch, it costs $3.75. A 2'
8" × 6' 8" × 1⅜", half-glass door, with plain glass, costs $5.55; with
art or lace glass, the price is $6.20. This price includes the glass.
If the door is 1¾ inches thick instead of 1⅜ inches, 65 cents should be
added to the two prices just stated.

A fair workman can hang, trim, and put hardware, including mortise
lock, on about four ordinary doors per day. For veneered doors, or
those requiring extra care, not more than two can be put in place in a
day by one man.

=90. Cost of Baseboards, Rails, and Moldings.=—The cost of material
and fitting in place of baseboards may be estimated at 1³/₁₀ cents per
square inch of section per linear foot. This price is for pine; if
hardwood is used, the price will be 2 cents. The same rule also applies
to chair rails, cap rails, and natural-finish picture moldings.

=91. Cost of Paneling and Wainscoting.=—Paneling may be estimated at 20
cents per square foot for ⅞-inch pine; if over ⅞ inch, add simply for
extra material. If the paneling is of hardwood and veneered, add 50 per
cent. to the price of pine.

Plain wainscoting may be estimated at 9 cents per square foot, the cap
being figured separately by the linear foot.

=92. Cost of Stairs.=—The cost per step for an ordinary stairway,
constructed according to the following specifications, is about $3.55.
For a better class of work, about one-quarter should be added to this
price. Length of steps, 3 feet; tread, Georgia pine; riser, white pine;
open string, white pine; nosing and cove; dovetail balusters, square
or turned; rail 2½ in. × 3 in.; 6-inch start newel, cherry; two 4-inch
square angle newels, with trimmed caps and pendants; simple easements,
furred underneath for plastering; treads and risers tongued together,
housed into wall strings, wedged, glued, and blocked.

The material of such a stairway will cost about $1.84 per step. This
rate includes landing fascia and balustrade to finish on upper floor.
The labor on the same, mill work and setting in place, is about $1.71
per step. For example, for a stairs having 17 steps and landing
balustrade (including return, about 14 feet), the entire cost will be
17 × $3.55 = $60.35, of which $31.28 will represent the cost of dressed
lumber, including turned balusters and newels and worked rail, and
$29.07 will represent the cost of labor in housing strings, cutting,
mitering, and dovetailing steps, working easements, fitting and bolting
rail, and erecting stairway in building.

=93. Cost of Verandas.=—For small dwellings, it has been found
by experience that a veranda built according to the following
specifications will cost about $3.75 per linear foot: Width, 5 feet;
posts, turned, set 6 or 8 feet on centers; floor timbers, 2 in. × 6
in.; flooring, ⅞-inch white pine, sound grade; rafters, 2 in. × 4 in.,
dressed; purlins, 2 in. × 4 in., set 2 feet on centers; roof sheathing,
⅞-inch white pine; box frieze and angle mold; angle and face brackets;
steps; no balustrade.

To include balustrade with 2-inch turned balusters, add about 60 cents
per linear foot.

For a veranda built according to the following specifications, the cost
will be about $6.75 per linear foot: Width, 8 feet; columns, 9-inch,
turned; box pedestals; box cornice and gutter; level ceiling; roof
timbers, 2 in. × 6 in.; roof covered with matched boards; tin, a good
grade; floor timbers, 2 in. × 8 in.; floor, 1¼-inch white pine, second
grade, with white-lead joints; no balustrade.

Including balustrade, with 2½-inch turned balusters, rail, and base to
suit, add 80 cents per linear foot.

Where a portion of the veranda is segmental or semicircular, a close
approximation to the cost will be had if the circumference of the
circular part is measured, and a rate fixed at twice that for straight
work of the same length. This applies to veranda framing, roofing,
casing, and balustrades.

STRUCTURAL STEEL

=94.= The price of =structural steel= varies continually as the steel
market fluctuates. The cost of erecting steel also varies continually
and depends on the difficulties to be overcome. Heavy steel work costs
less per pound than light roof trusses and domes, because less shop
work is required in proportion to the weight. For average prices in the
eastern part of the United States, heavy steel may be taken at 3³/₁₀
cents per pound. Roof trusses, due to extra framing, will cost about
3⁸/₁₀ cents per pound, and light, complicated dome work will cost 6½
cents per pound. These prices are for steel delivered and painted. To
erect steel costs anywhere from ½ to 2 cents per pound, depending on
local conditions.

HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM

=95. Heating and ventilating work= should be estimated as indicated in
the following paragraphs:

Estimate all pipes and fittings the same as for plumbing. Sum up all
standard radiators, and the price per square foot of radiation. Figure
special radiators separately.

Itemize all valves, air vents, hangers, etc.

Estimate on pipe coverings by linear foot.

Estimate sheet-metal, indirect-radiator casings in pounds.

Estimate sheet-metal flues and smoke pipes by the linear foot; but
estimate elbows and dampers separately.

Estimate register boxes, registers, and borders separately.

Make separate items of expansion tanks, hot-water damper regulators,
and furnace regulators.

Figure heaters, steam boilers, and furnaces from manufacturers’
catalogs.

In estimating on heating by furnace, the average cost of labor is about
one-third that of materials. For steam and hot-water heating, the ratio
is about one-fifth.

The cost of a hot-air installation is approximately 6 per cent. of the
cost of the building; for steam heating, 8 per cent.; and for hot-water
heating, 10 per cent.

PLUMBING AND GAS-FITTING

PLUMBING

=96.= An approximate figure for the cost of =plumbing= is 10 per cent.
of the cost of the building. This figure is for good materials and
labor, and of course is subject to considerable variation. The cost of
labor alone will average about one-fourth the cost of the materials.

=97. Drainage System.=—In making estimates for the =drainage system=,
measure all horizontal pipes from the plans and all vertical pipes from
the sectional drawings.

Commence at the sewer outlet and measure the main-sewer line forwards
into the building; then measure the horizontal branches.

Measure the vertical, soil, waste, and vent stacks to their
terminations above the roof, and waste-pipe branches to the fixtures on
the several floors.

Itemize the several pipes in the different kinds and classes.

Estimate all earthen pipe by the linear foot, allowing for Portland
cement in the joints.

Estimate all cast-iron pipe by the linear foot, allowing for each joint
¾ pound of lead for every inch in diameter of the pipe.

Estimate wrought pipe by the linear foot, inclusive of couplings.

Estimate brass, copper, and lead pipe by the pound.

Estimate all traps, bends, branches, increasers, reducers, and other
fittings separately, except such special brass fixtures, traps, and
connections as are included in the cost of the fixtures. Do not figure
lead bends that are smaller than 2 inches.

Estimate on brass ferrule connections at all points where lead pipe
joins iron pipe.

Estimate on all solder joints (wiped), allowing 1 pound of solder for
every inch inside diameter of the pipe.

=98. Water-Supply System.=—For water supplied from street mains, allow
for permits, corporation tapping, and curb box.

Measure the service pipe from street main to cellar, and allow for a
stop and waste cock inside the cellar wall.

Measure all horizontal distributing pipes from the plan views of
the building and all vertical distributing pipes from the sectional
drawings.

Measure all branches for the several fixtures on the different floors,
to the lawn hydrants, etc.

Itemize the different kinds and classes of pipes.

Estimate lead, brass, and copper water pipes by the pound, and wrought
water pipe by the linear foot.

Itemize all stop-cocks, pipe supports, straps, hangers, etc. separately.

Estimate all water-pipe fittings less than 1½ inches by the pound.

Figure on brass solder-nipple connections in all places where lead
pipes join iron pipes.

Estimate on kitchen boiler, sediment cock, and range connections; also
on faucets for all fixtures other than those which are included in the
costs of the fixtures.

Estimate on garden hydrants and lawn sprinklers, and allow a stop and
waste cock in cellar for each.

=99. Well Supply.=—For water supplied from a well, figure on
double-action force pump in kitchen or laundry if the well is not
deeper than 26 feet below the pump; for a deep well, estimate on a
pumping engine or a windmill.

Measure lead tank linings in square feet, and estimate by the pound,
allowing 1 pound of solder for every 2 feet of seams.

Allow 2 feet of lead pipe to connect iron pipes to house tank, and for
stop-cocks close to tank.

Provide for telltale and overflow pipes for tank.

Estimate copper tanks in square feet and by the pound.

If there are iron, slate, glass, or cedar tanks, figure them
separately.

=100. Fixtures.=—Estimate each =fixture= separately, and include traps,
faucets, waste, vent, and water connections to walls or floors. When
the sewer is long and has but little fall, figure on using a grease
trap for the kitchen sink.

GAS-FITTING

=101. Cost.=—The cost of the =gas-fitting= may be approximately
figured as about 3 per cent. of the cost of the building. The cost of
labor alone varies from about one-fourth to one-seventh of the cost
of materials. The better the grade of fixtures, the lower will be the
ratio, provided there is no excessive ornamentation requiring much time
to put in place, as the cost of the labor is about the same for cheap
fixtures as for more costly ones.

=102.= Estimate piping the same as for plumbing.

Allow for meter, permits, tapping gas main, etc.

Figure each gas fixture separately set up in place. The owner usually
makes a selection of fixtures from the manufacturer’s catalog. Allow
for shields, fireguards, etc. in places where there is danger of fire.

Figure gas grates, gas stoves, gas heaters, etc. separately. Where the
gas pressure is very high or unsteady, allow for a pressure regulator.

PAINTING AND PAPERING

PAINTING

=103. Painting= is measured by the superficial yard, girting every part
of the work that is covered by paint, and allowing additions to the
actual surface to compensate for the difficulty of covering deep quirks
of moldings, for carved and enriched surfaces, etc. Ordinary door and
window openings are usually measured solid, to compensate for the extra
time taken in working around them, “cutting in” the window sash, etc.
Porch and stair balustrades, iron railings, and work having numerous
thin strips, are also counted solid, for a similar reason. Allowance
is frequently made for the distance from the ground that the work is
to be done, as in cornices, balconies, dormers, etc., and also for the
difficulty of access.

Charges are usually made for each coat of paint put on, at a certain
price per superficial yard and per coat.

Graining and marbling (imitations of wood and stone) and varnishing are
rated at different prices from plain work.

Capitals and columns and other ornamental work that is difficult to
measure should be enumerated, and a clear description of the amount of
work on them should be given.

DATA ON PAINTING

=104. Quantities.=—One pound of pure lead-and-oil paint will cover
from 2¾ to 3¼ square yards of wood for the first coat, and from 4½ to
6 square yards for each additional coat; on brickwork, it will cover
about 1½ and 2 square yards, respectively. Colored paint will cover
about one-third more surface than white paint.

Using prepared or ready-mixed paint, 1 gallon will cover from 250 to
300 square feet of wooden surface, two coats; for covering metallic
surfaces, 1 gallon will be sufficient for from 300 to 400 square
feet, one coat. The weight per gallon of pure mixed paints varies
considerably, but, on an average, may be taken at about 16 pounds.

Prepared shingle stains will cover about 200 square feet of surface per
gallon if applied with a brush; or, this quantity will be sufficient
for dipping about 500 shingles. Rough-sawed shingles will require about
50 per cent. more stain than smooth ones.

One pound of cold-water paint, for the first coat, will cover from 50
to 75 square feet of wood, according to the surface condition, and
about 40 square feet of brick and stone.

One gallon of liquid pigment filler, hard-oil finish, or varnish will
generally cover from 350 to 450 square feet of surface for the first
coat, according to the nature of the wood and the finish, and from 450
to 550 square feet for the second and subsequent coats. One pound of
paste wooden filler will cover about 40 square feet.

One gallon of varnish weighs from 8 to 9 pounds; turpentine, about 7
pounds; and boiled or raw linseed oil, about 7¾ pounds.

For puttying, about 5 pounds of putty will be sufficient for 100 square
yards of interior and exterior work.

For sizing, about ½ pound of glue is used to 1 gallon of water.

For mixing paints, the figures given in Table XIV represent the average
proportions of materials required for each 100 pounds of lead.

TABLE XIV

QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS
========+======+=========+===========+==========
Coat | Lead | Raw Oil |Japan Drier|Turpentine
|Pounds| Gallons | Gallon | Gallons
--------+------+---------+-----------+----------
Priming | 100 | 7 | ½ | --
Second | 100 | 4 | -- | 2
Third | 100 | 6½-7 | -- | ½
========+======+=========+===========+==========

The drier is omitted in the second and succeeding coats, unless the
work is to be dried very rapidly, as it is considered to be injurious
to the durability of the paint.

On outside work, boiled oil is generally used in about the proportion
of 1 gallon to 2 gallons of raw oil.

=105. Care in Painting.=—In painting woodwork, putty should not be
used until after the first coat of paint or varnish has been applied.
There are two reasons for this. In the first place, if putty is used
on dry wood, the wood is liable to absorb the oil from the putty and
leave it in a dry and crumbly condition. Then, also, the oil from the
putty soaking into the wood will stain the wood dark, and this stain
may be seen through varnish. For this latter reason, putty should be
put in cracks and holes with a putty knife and not with the fingers, as
otherwise the oil from the putty will get over the fingers and thus be
transferred to the woodwork, where it will show as a dark stain if the
wood is varnished.

Due care should also be taken in painting woodwork that has knots in
it, as otherwise the turpentine in the knot will be sure to discolor
the paint in course of time. To avoid this, the knots should be coated,
or _killed_, with a coat of shellac before the first coat of paint is
applied. The shellac prevents the turpentine in the knot from soaking
through and discoloring the paint.

=106. Cost of Painting.=—The cost of applying paint on general interior
and exterior work will average about twice the cost of the materials,
while for very plain work, done in one color, the cost may be taken at
about 1½ times that of the materials. For stippling, the cost will be
about the same as for two coats of paint. For varnishing, the cost of
labor will be about 1½ times the price of the varnish.

The following figures represent fair average prices, for various
classes of work, and have been adopted by the Builders’ Exchange of a
large eastern city:

COST PER
SQUARE YARD
INTERIOR WORK CENTS

1 coat of paint, including shellacking knots 10
2 coats of paint, including puttying 20
3 coats of paint, including puttying 25 to 30
1 coat of shellac 15
Walls, 1 coat of size, 2 coats of paint 20
Walls, 1 coat of size, 3 coats of paint, stippled 30

_Hardwood Finish_
1 coat of paste filler, 1 coat of varnish 25
1 coat of paste filler, 2 coats of varnish 40
1 coat of paste filler, 3 coats of varnish 50
1 coat of paste filler, 3 coats of varnish, rubbed
down to dull finish 60 to 75

_Finish on Soft Woods_
1 coat of liquid filler, 1 coat of varnish 20
1 coat of liquid filler, 2 coats of varnish 30
1 coat of liquid filler, 3 coats of varnish, rubbed 50
Floors: filling, shellacking, varnishing,
or waxing, 2 coats (or 4 coats in all) 40

_Tinting Walls (Cold-Water Paint)_
Tinting, 50 yards or less, including sizing 12
Tinting, 50 yards or more, including sizing 10

=107.= In =staining= hardwoods with open grain, such as oak, chestnut,
ash, etc., it is customary, when a varnished surface is required, to
stain the paste filler with oil colors so as to secure the desired tint
and then finish with three or four coats of varnish. The staining adds
about 5 cents per square yard to the cost of varnishing.

When it is desired to color the silver grain, or medullary rays,
revealed in quarter-sawed material, the usual plan is first to stain
the material with an oil or an aniline stain that permanently affects
only the silver grain. Afterwards, the paste filler colored to the
desired tint is applied, and this, on entering and closing the open
grain, buries the first stain, but does not cover that over the
medullary rays. This, as in the previous method of staining, adds about
5 cents a square yard to the cost of varnishing.

Another method of treating oak, chestnut, and ash is to stain the wood
to the desired shade with an oil stain of the proper tint. This stain
is applied with cheesecloth to an even surface, and, after puttying,
one coat of flat varnish is applied. This process costs about 25 cents
per square yard.

For silver-gray effects, the addition of aluminum bronze to the oil
stain will give a pleasing effect. This costs about 28 cents per square
yard.

When it is desired to have the open grain show a white effect, the
usual method is to use a paste filler with zinc white added and then a
coat of flat varnish. This costs about 30 cents per square yard.

Oak, chestnut, and ash maybe colored by fuming (to give the effect of
age) with the vapors of ammonia released in a closed box. This effect
is also produced by several patented processes. It costs about 30 cents
per square yard.

EXTERIOR PAINTING COST PER
SQUARE YARD
_Woodwork_ CENTS
1 coat of paint 10
2 coats of paint, including puttying 18
3 coats of paint, including puttying 25 to 30

_Common and Pressed Brickwork_
1 coat of paint 15
2 coats of paint 25
3 coats of paint 35
Penciling and lining joints on painted brickwork 05
Penciling joints on pressed, unpainted brickwork 10

_Sanding_
2 coats of paint, 1 coat of sand 28
3 coats of paint, 1 coat of sand 35

_Miscellaneous_ COST
Dipping shingles, per 1,000 $3.00
Additional coat, per 1,000 shingles .50
Brush-coating shingles, per square yard .15
Blinds, per square foot, 1 coat, painted on
both sides .04
Additional coat for blinds, per square foot .04
Iron fence, per square foot, 1 coat, painted on
both sides .04
Tin roof, per square yard, 1 coat .05
Additional coat for tin roof, per square yard .04

=NOTE.=—For painting sand-lime bricks, double the prices
given for common and pressed brickwork.

PAPERING

=108. Papering= is usually figured per roll, put on the wall. The paper
is generally 18 inches wide, and is in 8-yard rolls; double rolls are
16 yards. On account of waste in matching, etc., it is difficult to
estimate very closely the number of rolls required, but an approximate
result may be obtained as follows: Divide the perimeter of the room
by 1½ (the width of paper in feet); the result will be the number of
strips. Find the number of strips that can be cut from a roll, and
divide the first result by the second; the quotient will be the number
of rolls required. No openings less than 20 square feet in area should
be deducted, in order to compensate for cutting and fitting at such
places. About 15 per cent. should be added to the area to allow for
waste. The border, whether wide or narrow, is generally figured as one
roll of paper.

The cost of paper is extremely variable, ranging from 15 cents to $6
per roll; the average cost is probably 25 to 50 cents per roll, for
ordinary houses. Paper hanging costs from 10 cents to $1 per roll,
according to quality, with strips butted.

GLAZING

=109.= =Glazing= was formerly included in the painter’s contract, but
as it is now customary and more convenient to oil or paint and glaze
the sash at the mill when they are made, the glazing is included in the
joinery specifications, and is not considered as a separate subdivision
of estimating work.

In measuring glass, take the dimensions between rabbets each way when
the panes are rectangular; if irregular or circular in form, take
the extreme dimensions, and consider the panes rectangular. It costs
about 1½ cents per square foot of light to glaze a window. This price
includes the cost of putty.

Polished plate glass is used extensively for store-front windows and
also for glazing window sash in fine work. There are three qualities:
French plate, and two grades of American plate, which may be obtained
in various sizes up to 8 feet wide and 14 feet long. The cost of plate
glass is estimated by the aid of a price list that gives the cost
of the various sizes. This list is furnished by dealers and remains
the same from year to year; it is known as the _standard list_. The
fluctuations are provided for by means of a discount, which is the same
for all sizes of glass.

TABLE XV

PANES OF WINDOW GLASS PER BOX
========+======+=========+======+=========+======+=========+=====
|Panes | |Panes | |Panes | |Panes
Size | in | Size | in | Size | in | Size | in
Inches | Box | Inches | Box | Inches | Box | Inches | Box
--------+------+---------+------+---------+------+---------+-----
6 × 8 | 150 | 16 × 22 | 21 | 22 × 28 | 12 | 26 × 58 | 5
7 × 9 | 115 | 16 × 24 | 15 | 22 × 30 | 11 | 28 × 28 | 9
8 × 10 | 90 | 16 × 34 | 13 | 22 × 32 | 10 | 28 × 30 | 9
8 × 12 | 75 | 16 × 38 | 12 | 22 × 34 | 10 | 28 × 42 | 6
9 × 11 | 73 | 16 × 44 | 10 | 22 × 36 | 9 | 28 × 52 | 5
9 × 12 | 67 | 18 × 20 | 20 | 22 × 38 | 9 | 30 × 30 | 8
9 × 13 | 62 | 18 × 22 | 18 | 22 × 48 | 7 | 30 × 40 | 6
10 × 12 | 60 | 18 × 24 | 17 | 22 × 52 | 6 | 30 × 50 | 5
10 × 14 | 52 | 18 × 26 | 16 | 24 × 24 | 12 | 30 × 54 | 4
10 × 16 | 45 | 18 × 32 | 13 | 24 × 26 | 12 | 32 × 32 | 7
10 × 18 | 40 | 18 × 36 | 11 | 24 × 28 | 11 | 32 × 36 | 6
12 × 14 | 43 | 18 × 42 | 10 | 24 × 30 | 10 | 32 × 48 | 5
12 × 16 | 38 | 18 × 52 | 8 | 24 × 32 | 10 | 32 × 52 | 4
12 × 18 | 34 | 20 × 20 | 18 | 24 × 34 | 9 | 32 × 58 | 4
12 × 20 | 30 | 20 × 22 | 16 | 24 × 36 | 9 | 32 × 62 | 4
12 × 22 | 27 | 20 × 24 | 15 | 24 × 38 | 8 | 34 × 34 | 6
12 × 24 | 25 | 20 × 26 | 14 | 24 × 40 | 8 | 34 × 36 | 6
14 × 16 | 32 | 20 × 28 | 13 | 24 × 42 | 7 | 34 × 46 | 5
14 × 18 | 29 | 20 × 30 | 12 | 24 × 44 | 7 | 34 × 50 | 4
14 × 20 | 26 | 20 × 34 | 11 | 24 × 46 | 7 | 34 × 56 | 4
14 × 22 | 24 | 20 × 36 | 10 | 24 × 52 | 6 | 36 × 36 | 6
14 × 24 | 22 | 20 × 38 | 10 | 24 × 60 | 5 | 36 × 44 | 5
14 × 26 | 20 | 20 × 40 | 9 | 26 × 26 | 11 | 36 × 48 | 4
14 × 36 | 14 | 20 × 52 | 7 | 26 × 28 | 10 | 36 × 54 | 4
14 × 40 | 13 | 22 × 22 | 15 | 26 × 32 | 9 | 36 × 58 | 3
16 × 18 | 25 | 22 × 24 | 14 | 26 × 44 | 6 | 36 × 64 | 3
16 × 20 | 23 | 22 × 26 | 13 | 26 × 52 | 5 | 40 × 60 | 3
========+======+=========+======+=========+======+=========+=====

When stained or art glass is used, the specifications generally limit
the cost, as the glass is made according to the architect’s designs
or to approved designs submitted by manufacturers. The price depends
more on the amount of lead or copper used than on the cost of the glass
itself, and therefore no very close estimate can be made. The following
figures are only approximate:

COST PER
SQUARE FOOT
Clear glass $1 to $3
Opalescent glass $1 to $3
Plate glass $2 to $4
Cathedral glass $3 to $5
Favrille glass About $8

Ordinary window, or sheet, glass is sold by the box, which contains, as
nearly as possible, 50 square feet, whatever the size of the glass may
be. There are two qualities of ordinary glass, known as _single_ and
_double thick_, the former being about ¹/₁₆ inch thick, and the latter
nearly ⅛ inch. Single-thick glass should never be used in panes over
24 in. × 24 in. in size. Table XV gives the number of panes of window
glass in one box of 50 square feet.

ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING QUANTITIES

(PART 2)

EXAMPLE IN ESTIMATING

=1.= Following the rules and suggestions already given in _Estimating
and Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, the estimate for a house will be
made as a practical example, the drawings on which it is based being
shown in the accompanying plates. In making the estimate, the various
portions of the work are taken in the order in which they naturally
occur in the erection of the building, following, as closely as
possible, the estimating schedule heretofore given.

As far as possible, the figures given in the example should be checked
up by taking off quantities and performing all the indicated work. It
is only by actually making the calculations that any practical benefit
from the work will be derived. _No two estimators, working separately,
will arrive at exactly the same results; therefore, in following the
calculations in this example, some discrepancies between the figures of
the person performing the estimating and the ones given will no doubt
be found._ These discrepancies should not be important ones, however,
and by carefully studying the methods followed, results substantially
the same as those computed here should be obtained.

EXCAVATION

=2.= In calculating the cubic yards of earth excavated for the cellar,
all measurements are taken from the foundation plan and the sections.
The plan is blocked out as shown in the accompanying Cellar Plan,
and the area of each block found; then, by multiplying the sum of
these partial areas by the depth of the cellar, the cubic contents is
determined. The trenches for the foundation walls of porches and for
the footings of cellar walls are calculated separately, as also are the
excavations for piers, drains, cesspools, area, etc.

CELLAR EXCAVATION

SQUARE CUBIC
_Quantities_ FEET FEET

Block _A_, 23' 4" × 16' 4" 381.0
Block _B_, 14' 6" × 20' 10" 302.0
Deduct 4" × 3' 0" 1.0
Add for projection of wall,
(13' 6" + 7') ÷ 2 × 3' = 30.8
---- 331.8
Block _C_, 27' 6" × 17' 5" 479.0
Deduct for breaks in wall, 1' 7"
× 6' 8" and 2' 6" × 3' 18.0
---- 461.0
Block _D_, 26' 6" × 10' 5½" 277.2
Block _E_, 16' 8" × 11' 6½" 192.4
Deduct for breaks in wall, 6' 6"
× 1' 11" and 3' × 5" 13.7
----- 178.7
[2]Block _F_, 9' 10" × 9' 7½" ÷ 2 47.3
[3]Block _G_, 14' × 14' × .7854 ÷ 2 77.0
Deduct for portion of semicircular
part, included in _F_, 12" × 14'
approximately 14.0
---- 63.0
-------
Total area of excavation 1,740.0
Contents, 1,740 sq. ft. × 6.5 ft. (depth) 11,311.0

[2] The block _F_ is taken as a triangle. The block _G_ is a
semicircle, and its area is found, as will be noticed, by finding the
area of a circle and dividing it by 2.

[3] The block _F_ is taken as a triangle. The block _G_ is a
semicircle, and its area is found, as will be noticed, by finding the
area of a circle and dividing it by 2.

EXCAVATION FOR WALL FOOTINGS[4]
SQUARE CUBIC
_Quantities_ FEET FEET
_a b_, 26' × 2' 6" 65.0
_b c_, 5' 6" × 3' 16.5
_c d_, 9' 9" × 2' 6" 24.4
_d e_, 17' 6" × 2' 6" 43.7
_e f_, 27' 4" × 2' 6" 68.3
_f g_, 9' 2" × 3' 8" 33.6
_g h_, 21' × 2' 6" 52.5
_i j_, 27' 7" × 2' 6" 69.0
_j a_, 31' × 2' 6" 77.5
_k l_, 20' 2" × 2' 6" 50.4
Chimney, 12' 6" × 4' (approximately) 50
Deductions 10.4 39.6
_q r_, 16' 4" × 1' 10" 29.9
_r s_, 9' 2" × 1' 10" 16.8
_m n_ (less openings), 7' 9" × 2' 6" 19.4
_o p_, 20' × 1' 10" 36.7
------
Total area of excavation for footings 643.3
Contents, 643.3 sq. ft. × 10 in. (.833 ft.)
depth 535.9

MISCELLANEOUS EXCAVATIONS[5]
CUBIC
_Quantities_ FEET
Front porch, 69' 9" × 2' 3" × 3' 470.8
Back porch, 24' × 2' 4" × 3' 168.0
Piers for steps, 1' 8" × 2' × 3' × 2 20.0
Piers for side steps and back porch,
2' × 2' × 3' × 4 48.0
Cellar area, 5' 9" × 6' 4" × 6' 6" 236.7
Deduct 2' × 3' × 6' 6" 39.0
----- 197.7

Dry cesspool, 6 ft. diameter × 6 ft. depth 169.6
Cesspool, 6 ft. diameter × 8 ft. depth 226.2
Trench for pipe to cesspool, 25' × 7' 6" × 2' 375.0
Trench for drain pipes (roof drainage), 228' × 3' × 1' 684.0
Trench for drain pipes from junction to dry cesspool,
20' × 3' × 18" 90.0
--------
Total 2,449.3
--------
Grand total of excavation 14,296.2

[4] Lengths scaled along center line of walls.

[5] Lengths scaled along center line of walls.

FILLING
CUBIC
_Quantities_ FEET
Around foundation walls, 181' 2" × 6" × 6' 6" 588.8
Around foundation of porches, etc., 142' 3" × 6" × 3' 213.4
-----
Total filling 802.2

_Cost_

The cost of excavation in sandy soil, taken from _Estimating and
Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, is 53 cents per cubic yard. The cost
of filling, including tamping, may be taken as about one-third that of
excavation, or, say, 18 cents per cubic yard.

_Summary_
Excavation, 14,296.2 cu. ft. = 529.5 cu. yd.,
at 53 cents per cubic yard $280.64
Filling, 802.2 cu. ft. = 29.7 cu. yd.,
at 18 cents per cubic yard 5.35
-------
Total cost of excavation and filling $285.99

STONEWORK

=3.= The foundation walls are built of rubble masonry to the sill at
the grade line, and from this sill to the water-table they are built
of ashlar with rubble backing, except those portions behind porches
and steps, which are wholly rubble. The estimate for stonework also
includes the concrete for footings and cellar floor; the number of
cubic feet of concrete required for the footings will be found by
referring to the item Excavation for Wall Footings.

RUBBLE MASONRY
CUBIC
_Quantities_[6] FEET
Cellar walls, 181' 2" × 1' 6" × 6' 6" 1,766.4
Add for extra thickness over 1' 6":
5" × 6' 3" × 6' 6" 16.9
1' 2" × 10' 8" × 6' 6" 80.9
----- 97.8

[7]Foundation walls for front porch:
74' 6" × 1' 8" × 1' 9" 217.3
74' 6" × 1' 2" × 9" 65.2
------ 282.5

Foundation for steps:
2 piers, 1' 6" × 1' 8" × 2' 6" 12.5
2 piers, 2' x 1' 6" × 2' 6" 15.0
----- 27.5

Stone footings under porch foundations, 74' 6"
× 2' 3" × 6" 83.8
Backing for ashlar and water-table, 79' 10" × 1'
(average) × 3' 239.5
Rubble wall behind porches, 101' 4" × 1' 6" × 3'
(approximately) 456.0
[8]Foundation walls, rear porch, 26' 10" × 1' 6" × 2' 6" 100.6
Footings, walls rear porch, 26' 10" × 2' 4" × 6" 31.3
Area walls, 13' 9" × 1' × 6' 6" 89.4
Stone footing for area walls, 13' 9" × 1' 9" × 6" 12.0
Piers, 1' 6" × 1' 6" × 2' 6" × 2 11.3
Pier footings, 2' × 2' × 6" × 4 8.0
Pier footings, 2' × 1' 9" × 6" × 2 3.5
---------
Total rubble masonry 3,209.2

[6] External measurements with no deduction for openings.

[7] Although these are made continuous, to carry the base, or ground
sill, independent piers, under the porch columns might be substituted,
at a somewhat less cost.

[8] Although these are made continuous, to carry the base, or ground
sill, independent piers, under the porch columns might be substituted,
at a somewhat less cost.

_Cost_

The cost of the rubble masonry based on the analysis given in
_Estimating and Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, using 1-3 Portland
cement mortar, is $5.23 per perch.

_Summary_

From the foregoing calculation, the quantity of rubble masonry is
3,209.2 cu. ft. Taking 25 cu. ft. to 1 perch, 3,209.2 ÷ 25 = 128.4
perches, which at $5.23 per perch makes the total cost of rubble
masonry $671.53.

ASHLAR[9]
_Quantities_
SQUARE
FEET
Facing for cellar walls, 79' 10" × 2' 2" 173.0
Porch piers, 29' 6" × 1' 6" 43.9
-------
Total ashlar 216.9

[9] The walls between the base sill and the water-table are faced with
ashlar, which extends around the main walls to the porches, and all
porch piers are built of ashlar.

_Cost_

The estimated cost of ashlar is based on the following analysis of the
cost of 1 square foot of ashlar:

Cost of stone, bluestone facing $.40
Hauling stone .03
Mortar .01

Labor, estimating 64 square feet per day of 8 hours, for two masons and
one laborer:

Two masons, at $3.20 per day .10
One laborer at $2 per day .03
-----
Cost per square foot $.57

_Summary_

From the foregoing quantities, the ashlar amounts to 216.9 square feet,
which, at 57 cents per square foot, will make the total cost of ashlar
$123.63.

CUT STONE
_Quantities and Cost_
COST TOTAL
PER FOOT COST
Base, or ground sill, extending around
porches (except under stone steps) and
along exposed main walls, 172 ft., 5" × 11"
and 5" × 13" dressed and chamfered sandstone $1.00 $172.00
Water-table, extending around main walls,
181 ft. 2 in., 6" × 10" dressed and chamfered
sandstone .85 153.99
Lintel course, extending over brick walls,
125 ft., 6" × 10" dressed sandstone .85 106.25
Twelve dressed sandstone window sills, cut
with lug and drip, 55¾ ft., 5" × 8" .65 36.24
Cut-stone jambs and lintel for main door,
21½ ft., 10" × 12", sandstone 1.75 37.63
One front door sill, 5¾ ft., 6" × 10", sandstone 1.10 6.33
Coping on area walls, 9 ft., 3" × 16", sandstone .60 5.40
Front and side porch steps, 59 ft., 8" × 12",
dressed sandstone 1.25 73.75
Eight bluestone steps for cellar, outside entrance,
4' × 12" × 2" .35 11.20
Bluestone lintel for kitchen fireplace, 6' × 12" × 6" 1.20 7.20
Cut stone for main chimney 25.00
Cost to set cut stone, 20 per cent. 127.00
-------
Total cost of cut stone $761.99

CONCRETE FOOTINGS AND FLOOR
CUBIC
_Quantities_ YARD
Footings, as per Excavation for Wall Footings,
535.9 cu. ft. ÷ 27 19.8

SQUARE SQUARE
FEET YARD
Concrete floor:
Area of cellar excavation 1,740.0
Deduct area of footings 643.3
-------
1,096.7
Add for 6-inch strip over inner projection
of wall footings, 165' × 6" 82.5
Add for projection on both sides of interior
walls, 126' × 6" 63.0
Add for projection over chimney footing,
33' × 6" 16.5
-------
Total area of concrete floor 1,258.7 = 139.9

_Cost_

The estimate for concrete footings is based on the analyses of costs
given in _Estimating and Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, and is $5.10
per cubic yard for a 1-3-5 mixture.

The estimate for the concrete floor is arrived at as follows:

The concrete will be a 1-3-6 mixture. According to _Estimating and
Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, this mixture costs $4.92 per cubic
yard. According to the same section, 25 cents must be added to this
cost for extra labor, bringing the total up to $5.17 per cubic yard.
If the concrete floor is 4 inches thick, the cost per square yard will
be ⁴/₃₆ × 5.17 = 57 cents, approximately. The top coat, according
to _Estimating and Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, is 40 cents.
Therefore, the total cost of the concrete floor per square yard is 57 +
40 = 97 cents.

_Summary_

Footing concrete, as per foregoing figures,
19.8 cu. yd. at $5.10 per cubic yard $100.98
Concrete floor, 139.9 sq. yd.
at 97 cents per square yard 135.70
-------
Total cost of concrete $236.68

_Recapitulation of Cost of Stonework_
Rubble masonry $ 671.53
Ashlar masonry 123.63
Cut stone 761.99
Concrete footings and floor 236.68
---------
Total cost of stonework $1,793.83

BRICKWORK

=4.= In estimating the brickwork, openings have been deducted, thus
practically giving “kiln count,” so that the analyses of prices given
heretofore will apply. If openings had not been deducted, the prices
would be 15 per cent. lower.

PRESSED BRICK
_Quantities_ NO.
BRICK
Facing exterior walls, same length as stone
lintel course, 125' × 8' = 1,000 sq. ft. at
7½ bricks per square foot 7,500
SQUARE
Deduct for Openings: FEET
Nine windows, total width 32' X 6' 6" high 208.0
Two casement windows, total width
7' 4" × 8' high 58.7
One lavatory window, total width 2' X 6"
× 5' 6" 13.8
Main door, 5' 5" × 8' 9" 47.4
-----
Total deductions 327.9

327.9 × 7½ = 2,459
-----
Number of brick 5,041
Add 5 per cent. for waste 252
-----
Total pressed brick 5,293

_Cost_

The cost of pressed brickwork is based on the analysis given in
Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 1, and is $53.71 per
thousand.

_Summary_
From the preceding estimate of quantities, the
number of pressed brick laid is 5,041, which,
at $53.71 per M, will cost $270.75
Pressed brick, not laid, 252, at $30 per M 7.56
-------
Total cost of pressed brickwork $278.31

COMMON BRICK
_Quantities_ NO.
BRICK
Backing exterior pressed-brick walls, 8½ in. thick,
5,041 × 2 = 10,082

Backing behind lintel course,
9" X 125' × 8" at 15 brick per sq. ft. 1,406

Interior cellar walls, 28' 4" × 8' = 226.7 sq. ft.
(17-inch wall) at 30 brick per square foot 6,801

Deduct for three openings, 12' 3" total width
× 6' 6" height = 79.6 sq. ft. at 30 brick
per square foot 2,388
----- 4,413
Interior wall, 8½" thick, 43' 9" × 8', 350 sq. ft.
at 15 brick per square foot 5,250
Chimney, principal (flues figured solid), approximately
920 cu. ft., at 22½ brick per cubic foot 20,700
Chimney, rear, approximately 245 cu. ft., at 22½ brick
per cubic foot 5,513
Trap pits, 46 sq. ft., at 7½ brick per square foot 345
------
46,303
Add 5 per cent. for waste 2,315
------
Total common brick 48,618

_Cost_

The cost of the common brickwork is based on the analysis given in
_Estimating and Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, and is $16.68 per
thousand for lime-cement mortar.

_Summary_
According to the estimate of quantities, the
number of common brick laid is 46,303, which,
at $16.68, will cost $ 772.33
Common bricks, not laid, 2,315, at $8 18.52
Molded brick and terra-cotta cap for rear chimney 10.00
--------
Total cost of common brickwork $ 800.85

_Recapitulation of Cost of Brickwork_
Pressed brickwork $ 278.31
Common brickwork 800.85
---------
Total cost of brickwork $1,079.16

CARPENTRY

=5.= In estimating carpentry work, it is advisable to make a tabulated
list of the various sizes of joists, rafters, etc., giving the number
and dimensions of each size. In this way, any error in calculation or
change in price can be corrected with little difficulty.

As house-framing timbers and boards are sold at the yards in even
lengths, as 10 feet, 12 feet, 14 feet, etc., uneven, or odd,
measurements must be figured in even lengths from which they can be
cut. Thus, if a stick 14 feet 7 inches in length is required, a 16-foot
stick must be ordered.

Usually, the price per thousand feet, board measure, increases as
longer sticks are used, although the practice varies in different
localities. For example, in most localities hemlock timber in 10-, 12-,
or 14-foot lengths is all one price per thousand, but a thousand feet,
board measure, of 16-foot lengths costs more, and 18-foot lengths is
still more expensive. The price of yellow pine, spruce, fir, etc. is
usually constant up to 20-foot lengths, but from that length on the
prices increase. The price of white-pine boards in most localities
increases with their width. The hardwoods can be usually obtained in
any reasonable length, the price increasing with the quality of the
lumber more than with the length of the stick.

It can thus be seen that in house framing it is usually cheaper to use
short sticks than long ones. However, for long members, a long stick is
cheaper, because the extra cost that would be incurred in splicing two
short sticks would more than offset the cheapness of the material. Of
course, when very long sticks are required, say sticks 30 feet or more
in length, a splice is cheaper, owing to the difficulty of obtaining
them and their very excessive price.

No set rules can be laid down as to what size timber should be ordered,
and every architect and builder should be governed by the prices in the
locality where the house is to be put up.

FLOOR FRAMING, FIRST STORY
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Joists, 3" × 10"; 2½ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
6 pieces, each 14' 6", order 16' 96
2 pieces, each 15' 3", order 16' 32
1 piece, 16' 3", order 18' 18
5 pieces, each 17' 6", order 18' 90
1 piece, 12' 6", order 14' 14
6 pieces, each 11' 0", order 12' 72
1 piece, 9' 6", order 10' 10
18 pieces, each 14', order 14' 252
1 piece, 11' 6", order 12' 12
3 pieces, each 10' 6", order 12' 36
1 piece, 9' 4", order 10' 10
6 pieces, each 24', order 24' 144
1 piece, 11' 4", order 12' 12
2 pieces, each 20' 6", order 22' 44
6 pieces, each 20', order 20' 120
4 pieces, each 21', order 22' 88
2 pieces, each 7', cut out of 14' 14
2 pieces, each 13', order 14' 28
1 piece, 10', order 10' 10
------
Total 1,102 2,755

FLOOR FRAMING, SECOND STORY
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Girder, 6" × 12"; 6 ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
1 piece, 8' 9", order 10' 10 60
Joists, 2" × 10"; 1⅔ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
15 pieces, each 14', order 14' 210
2 pieces, each 15' 6", order 16' 32
5 pieces, each 17', order 18' 90
3 pieces, each 15', order 16' 48
14 pieces, each 16', order 16' 224
2 pieces, each 7', cut out of 14' 14
2 pieces, each 10', order 10' 20
4 pieces, each 11', order 12' 48
7 pieces, each 24', order 24' 168
3 pieces, each 20' 6", order 22' 66
4 pieces, each 12' 6", order 14' 56
2 pieces, each 13' 6", order 14' 28
------
Total 1,004 1,673

Joists, 3" × 10"; 2½ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
(Headers) 2 pieces, each 8' 9", order 10' 20
2 pieces, each 6', cut out of 12' 12
5 pieces, each 9' 9", order 10' 50
11 pieces, each 19' 6", order 20' 220
----
302 755

FLOOR FRAMING, ATTIC
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Joists, 2" × 10"; 1⅔ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
15 pieces, each 14', order 14' 210
2 pieces, each 15' 6", order 16' 32
5 pieces, each 17', order 18' 90
3 pieces, each 15', order 16' 48
14 pieces, each 16', order 16' 224
2 pieces, each 7', cut out of 14' 14
2 pieces, each 10', order 10' 20
4 pieces, each 11', order 12' 48
7 pieces, each 24', order 24' 168
3 pieces, each 20' 6", order 22' 66
4 pieces, each 12' 6", order 14' 56
2 pieces, each 13' 6", order 14' 28
-----
Total 1,004 1,673

Joists, 3" × 10"; 2½ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
2 pieces, each 8' 9", order 10' 20
2 pieces, each 6', cut out of 12' 12
5 pieces, each 9' 9", order 10' 50
11 pieces, each 19' 6", order 20' 220
---
Total 302 755

FLOOR FRAMING, FRONT PORCH
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Joists, 3" × 9"; 2¼ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
3 pieces, each 7', cut out of 14' 21
1 piece, 6' 9", cut out of 14' 7
2 pieces, each 10', order 10' 20
1 piece, 8' 6", order 10' 10
--
Total 58 131

Joists, 2" × 6"; 1 ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
2 pieces, each 21' 6", order 22' 44
2 pieces, each 19' 3", order 20' 40
4 pieces, each 8', cut out of 16' 32
1 piece, 10' 3", order 12' 12
6 pieces, each 9', order 10' 60
2 pieces, each 4' 6", cut out of 10' 10
5 pieces, each 6', cut out of 12' 30
3 pieces, each 2', cut out of 12' 6
4 pieces, each 5', cut out of 10' 20
3 pieces, each 9', order 10' 30
---
Total 284 284

FLOOR FRAMING, BACK PORCHES
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Joists, 2" × 6"; 1 ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
2 pieces, each 21', order 22' 44
3 pieces, each 8', order 8' 24
--
Total 68 68

Joists, 3" X 6"; 1½ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
[10] 5 pieces, each 5' 9", cut out of 12' 36
12 pieces, each 6' 9", cut out of 14' 84
1 piece, 8' 6", order 10' 10
2 pieces, each 3' 6", cut out of 8' 8
--- ---
Total 138 207

BRIDGING
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
2" × 4"; ⅔ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
First floor, 170 pieces, each 1' 6" 255
Second floor, 138 pieces, each 1' 6" 207
Third floor, 138 pieces, each 1' 6" 207
---
Total 669 446

[10] One joist will be left over here, but this cannot easily be helped.

MAIN-ROOF FRAMING[11]
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Rafters, 2" × 6"; 1 ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
15 pieces, each 20', order 20' 300
14 pieces, each 19' 3", order 20' 280
1 piece, 18', order 18' 18
2 pieces, each 16', order 16' 32
2 pieces, each 14', order 14' 28
1 piece, 13' 4", order 14' 14
3 pieces, each 10' 6", order 12' 36
3 pieces, each 8' 6", order 10' 30
1 piece, 6' 9", order 8' 8
3 pieces, each 5', cut out of 16' 16
3 pieces, each 3', cut out of 10' 10
4 pieces, each 17', order 18' 72
1 piece, 12' 6", order 14' 14
1 piece, 10' 9", order 12' 12
2 pieces, each 9', order 10' 20
1 piece, 7', order 8' 8
18 pieces, each 9' 6", order 10' 180
2 pieces, each 13', order 14' 28
2 pieces, each 7' 9", cut out of 16' 16
2 pieces, each 6' 6", cut out of 14' 14
4 pieces, each 3' 6", cut out of 14' 14
4 pieces, each 8', cut out of 16' 32
2 pieces, each 11', order 12' 24
8 pieces, each 5' 3", cut out of 12' 48
1 piece, 6', cut out of 10' 6
2 pieces, each 2', cut out of 10' 4
8 pieces, each 11', order 12' 96
-----
Total 1,360 1,360

Valley rafter, 3" × 10"; 2 ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
1 piece, 24' 6", order 26' 65
Ridge plates, 2" × 10"; 1⅔ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
1 piece, 23' 6", order 24' 24
1 piece, 29' 3", 16' and 14', butted and cleated 30
1 piece, 9', order 10' 10
--
Total 64 107

Plates, 3" × 6"; 1½ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
4 pieces, each 10' 6", order 12' 72
Octagonal post, 6" × 6" × 3' 9

PORCH-ROOF FRAMING
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Rafters, 2" × 6"; 1 ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
2 pieces, each 9' 6", order 10' 20
22 pieces, each 8' 6", order 10' 220
4 pieces, each 6' 6", cut out of 14' 28
8 pieces, each 7', cut out of 14' 56
2 pieces, each 11', order 12' 24
---
Total 348 348

Rafters, 2" × 5"; ⅚ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
27 pieces, each 8', cut out of 16' 216
2 pieces, each 3' 6", cut out of 16' 8
8 pieces, each 6' 6", cut out of 14' 56
2 pieces, each 10' 6", cut out of 14' 21
2 pieces each, 3', cut out of 14' 6
---
Total 307 256

Plate, 5" × 10"; 4⅙ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
5 pieces, each 15', order 16' 80 333

Sills, 3" × 5"; 1¼ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
2 pieces, each 10', order 10' 20
5 pieces, each 9', order 10' 50
--
Total 70 88

[11] In the attic plan, which shows the lines of the roof, the lines of
the dormers are omitted so as to make the important hips and valleys
more prominent.

WALL STUDDING
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Wall plates, 4" × 11"; 3⅔ ft. B. M.,
per lin. ft.:
10 pieces, each 18', order 18' 180 660

Studs, 2" × 5"; ⁵/₆ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
[12]63 pieces, each 21', order 22' 1,386
106 pieces, each 12', order 12' 1,272
20 pieces, each 20', order 20' 400
10 pieces, each 8' 6", order 10' 100
-----
Total 3,158 2,632

PARTITION STUDDING
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
First floor, 2" × 4"; ⅔ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
Studs, 160 pieces, each 9' 9", order 10' 1,600
Sills, 16 pieces, each 15', order 16' 256
-----
Total 1,856 1,237

Second floor, 2" × 4"; ⅔ ft. B. M., per
lin. ft.:
Studs, 180 pieces, each 9' 9", order 10' 1,800
Sills, 10 pieces, each 15', order 16' 160
-----
Total 1,960 1,307

Attic, 2" × 4"; ⅔ ft. B. M., per lin. ft.:
Studs, 54 pieces, each 8' 9", order 10' 540
Studs, 133 pieces, each 6' 6", cut from 14' 938
-----
Total 1,478 985

MISCELLANEOUS
_Quantities_
LINEAR FEET
FEET B. M.
Lookouts:
50 pieces, each 3" × 1" × 2', cut from 8' 25
37 pieces, each 6" × 1" × 2', cut from 8' 37
Furring, for brick walls, 1" × 2"; ⅙ ft. B.
M., per lin. ft.:
125 pieces, each 11', order 12' 1,500 250
----- ------
Grand total of framing 18,578

[12] Where studs over 20 feet are required, it is sometimes more
economical to use two short studs, inserting a plate over the
first-story studs and resting the feet of the second-story studs
thereon.

_Cost_

The price of the framing is based on the following cost of 1,000 feet
board measure of hemlock, which includes framing.

1,000 ft. of hemlock $28.00
Nails and spikes, allowing 100 lb. to 3,000 ft.
of lumber, at $2 per 100 pounds .67
[13] Cost of framing, per 1,000 feet of lumber 12.00
------
Cost per thousand feet B. M. $40.67

[13] This value would appear high if compared with Table VI,
_Estimating and Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, but this table
represents ideal conditions, where there are no delays, mistakes,
legitimate office expenses, nor foreman's time included.

_Summary_

The amount of material, as previously estimated, is 18,578 ft. B. M.,
which, at $40.67 per M, will make the total cost of framing $755.57.

SHEATHING
_Quantities_
FEET
B. M.
Main roof, 2,200 sq. ft. × 1 in 2,200
Tower roof, 370 sq. ft. × 1 in 370
Porch roof, 637 sq. ft. × 1 in 637
Outside walls, laid diagonally, 2,417 sq. ft.
+ 10 per cent. 2,659
-----
Total sheathing 5,866

SHINGLES
_Quantities_
Area to be covered (see wall sheathing),
2,417 sq. ft.= 24.2 squares
Shingles, 4 in. wide, and 5 in. exposure,
number per square 720
Number of shingles required, 24.2 × 720 17,424
Add 5 per cent. for waste 871
------
Total shingles 18,295

_Cost_

The cost of sheathing in place is assumed to be the same as that for
hemlock lumber, $40.67 per M. The total sheathing is 5,866 square feet,
which, at $40.67 per M, will make the cost of sheathing $238.57.

The cost of shingles is based on the following analysis of the cost of
1,000 shingles in place:

1,000 shingles XXXX $ 5.50
[14] Labor: one man can lay about 700 shingles per day;
wages being $3.20, 1,000 will cost 4.57
Nails (about) .25
-----
Cost per thousand $10.32

[14] Usually a man can lay more than 700 shingles per day, but the roof
under consideration is very much cut up.

From the preceding estimate, the number of shingles required is 18,295,
which, at $10.32 per 1,000, will make the cost of shingles in place
$188.80.

_Summary_
Sheathing $238.57
Shingles 188.80
-------
Total cost of sheathing and shingles $427.37

FLOORING
_Quantities_
SQUARE
FEET
First floor, area (net) 1,312
Second floor, area (net) 1,312
Attic floor, area (net) 1,071
Porch floors, area (net) 523

HEMLOCK UNDERFLOORING

Unmatched underflooring is used under the first and second floor. Its
quantity is 1,312 × 2 = 2,624 feet B. M.

RIFT-SAWED YELLOW-PINE FINISH FLOORING

The total area of the first, second, and third floors is 3,695 square
feet. Adding 25 per cent. for waste, the quantity of ⅞-inch flooring is
3,695 square feet + (3,695 × .25) = 4,619 feet B. M.

YELLOW-PINE PORCH FLOORING

Increasing the net area of the porch floor by 25 per cent., the
flooring required is 523 square feet + (523 × .25) = 654 feet B. M.

_Cost_

The estimated cost of flooring may be analyzed as follows:

_Cost of 1,000 Feet B. M., Rough Flooring_
[15] 1,000 ft. B. M., hemlock $27.00
Labor 10.00
Nails, 33 lb., at $2 per 100 pounds .67
-----
Cost per thousand feet B. M. $37.67

_Cost of 1,000 Feet B. M., Finish Flooring_
1,000 ft. B. M., rift-sawed yellow pine $55.00
Labor, including striking joints 16.00
Nails .67
-----
Cost per thousand feet B. M. $71.67

_Cost of 1,000 Feet B. M., Porch Flooring_
1,000 ft. B. M., No. 1 yellow pine $45.00
Labor 16.00
White lead for joints (about) .50
Nails .67
------
Cost per thousand feet B. M. $62.17

[15] The cost of this hemlock is $1 cheaper per thousand than that used
in the framing, since shorter lengths may be employed.

_Summary_
Hemlock, 2,624 ft. B. M., at $37.67 per M $98.85
Rift-sawed yellow pine, 4,619 ft. B. M.,
at $71.67 per M 331.04
Yellow pine, 654 ft. B. M., at $62.17 per M 40.66
------
Total cost of flooring $470.55

PORCH CEILING, YELLOW PINE
_Quantities_
FEET
B. M.
Porch ceiling, same as porch flooring 654

_Cost_

The cost of yellow-pine ceiling is $45 per thousand feet B. M. Since
there is no white lead to be used and the joints are not struck, $11
will pay for laying it. The nails will cost 67 cents, which will bring
the cost per thousand feet B. M., up to $56.67. Therefore, 654 feet B.
M., yellow-pine ceiling, at $56.67 per thousand, will cost $37.06.

CORNICE, SPANDRELS, ETC.,
WHITE-PINE DRESSED LUMBER
_Cost_
Cornice, 393 lin. ft., at 50 cents per foot $196.50
Spandrels, 357 lin. ft., at 12 cents per foot 42.84
Base, 128 lin. ft., at 6 cents per foot 7.68
16 porch posts, 8" × 8" × 9' at $4 each 64.00
-------
Total $311.02

_Summary_
Yellow-pine ceiling $ 37.06
White-pine dressed lumber 311.02
-------
Total $348.08

_Recapitulation of Cost of Carpentry_
Framing $755.57
Sheathing and shingles 427.37
Flooring 470.55
Porch ceiling, cornice, etc. 348.08
---------
Total cost of carpentry $2,001.57

ROOFING

=6.= Roof framing and sheathing are included in the estimate for
carpentry. Following are given the estimates for slating and
miscellaneous roof items:

SLATING
_Quantities_
SQUARES
Main and dormer roofs 22.0
Porch roof 6.4
Tower roof 3.7
----
32.1

_Cost_

The price of slating per square is given in Table XII, _Estimating and
Calculating Quantities_, Part 1. Bangor slating costs $8 per square.
On account of the curved tower and the number of hips and valleys, and
because the measurement just given is actual measurement, the price
will be put at $10 per square. Thus, the cost of 32.1 squares at $10
will be $321.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS[16]
_Quantities and Cost_

Tin roof on bay window, 38 sq. ft. at 20 cents
per square foot $ 7.60
Tin for valleys, 191 sq. ft., at 18 cents
per square foot 34.38
Flashing around chimneys and dormers, 90 sq. ft.,
at 10 cents per square foot 9.00
Gutters, 100 lin. ft., 26 in. wide, at 28 cents per foot 28.00
Conductor pipe, 4-inch galvanized iron, 146 lin. ft.,
at 20 cents per linear foot 29.20
Terra-cotta ridge tiles, 70 lin. ft., at $1
per linear foot 70.00
3 terra-cotta finials, 2 ft. high, at $8 each 24.00
Tower finial, copper 30.00
-------
Total $232.18

_Recapitulation of Cost of Roofing_
Slating $321.00
Miscellaneous 232.18
-------
Total cost of roofing $553.18

[16] The prices given include the cost of labor.

LATHING AND PLASTERING

=7.= Plastering varies in price according to its position and quality.
It is therefore necessary to make a separate schedule of each class of
work, so that any increase or decrease in quantity may be easily added
to or deducted from the estimate.

THREE-COAT WORK
_Quantities_
SQUARE SQUARE
FEET YARDS
First-story walls, 542' × 9' 9⅜" 5,284.5
First-story ceiling (take measurement
of flooring) 1,312.0
Second-story walls, 609' × 9' 5,481.0
Second-story ceiling 1,312.0
Attic walls, 190' × 8' + 156' × 6' 2,456.0
Attic ceiling 831.0
--------
Total of three-coat plastering 16,676.5 1,853

TWO-COAT WORK
SQUARE SQUARE
_Quantities_ FEET YARDS
Cellar ceiling, use same measurements as
for concrete cellar floor 139.9

CORNICES
_Quantities_
LINEAR
FEET

Cornice, 147' of 2' girth 147
Cornice, 493' of 1' girth 493

_Cost_

The cost of three-coat plastering is given in _Estimating and
Calculating Quantities_, Part 1, as 31 cents per square yard, and
two-coat work, as 23 cents per square yard. According to the same
section, lathing costs 12 cents per square yard. Therefore, lathing and
plastering for three-coat work cost 43 cents per square yard, and for
two-coat work, 35 cents per square yard.

The assumed cost of plain, run stucco cornice per linear foot of 2-foot
girth is 31½ cents, and the cost per linear foot of that having a
1-foot girth is 27 cents.

_Summary_

From the preceding estimates of quantities and costs, the following
figures are obtained:

1,853 sq. yd. of three-coat work, at 43 cents
per square yard $ 796.79
139.9 sq. yd. of two-coat work, at 35 cents
per square yard 48.97
147 ft. of cornice at 31½ cents 46.31
493 ft. of cornice at 27 cents 133.11
---------
Total cost of plastering $1,025.18

JOINERY

=8.= As there are so many different sizes in the joinery work, no
attempt has been made to make detailed estimates of the cost of each;
but the general method of obtaining the costs is that given in the
articles on Joinery, in _Estimating and Calculating Quantities_, Part
1. Since the quality of the work varies in different parts of the
building it will be found that one unit price will not be sufficient,
but experience is needed to fix the unit price for different classes of
work.

DOOR FRAMES, FIRST FLOOR
_Quantities and Cost_
Chestnut frames—jambs 1⅛" rabbeted; casing ⅞" × 5½",
with ¼-inch edge mold; back-band molding ⅞" × 2";
plinth and corner blocks:
1 frame, 3' 2" × 7' 9" × 6" (vestibule) $ 4.16
1 frame, 3' 2" × 7' 9" × 9" (3-inch jamb), front door 4.68
1 frame, 5' 6" × 7' 9" × 14" (sliding-door) 13.60
1 frame, 4' × 7' 9" × 14" (sliding-door) 9.35
1 frame, 3' × 7' 9" × 14" (sliding-door) 6.80
2 frames, 2' 8" × 7' 9" × 6", $4.16 each 8.32
2 frames, 22" × 7' 9" × 4", $2.21 each 4.42

White pine—jambs 6" × 1⅛" rabbeted; casings
⅞" × 5"; back-band molding 2" × ⅞";
plinth and corner blocks:
4 frames, 2' 8" × 7' 9", $3.70 each 14.80
2 frames, 2' 6" × 7' 9", $3.61 each 7.22
1 frame, 2' 10" × 7' 9" 3.78
------
Total $77.13

DOOR FRAMES, SECOND FLOOR
_Quantities and Cost_
White pine, similar to first floor:
8 frames, 2' 8" × 7' 6", $3.57 each $28.56
6 frames, 2' 6" × 7' 6", $3.50 each 21.00
1 frame, 2' 2" × 7' 6" 3.19
1 frame, 2' 4" × 7' 6" 3.40
1 frame, 2' 6" × 7' 3.19
------
Total $59.34

DOOR FRAMES, ATTIC
_Quantities and Cost_
White pine, similar to second-floor doors:
6 frames, 2' 8" × 6' 8" at $3.19 $19.14
1 frame, 2' 6" × 6' 6" 3.06
------
Total $22.20

_Summary_
First floor $ 77.13
Second floor 59.34
Attic 22.20
-------
Total cost of door frames $158.67

DOORS, FIRST STORY[17]
_Quantities and Cost_

Veneered chestnut, six and seven raised panels,
planted moldings:
1 pair sliding, 2' 9" × 7' 9" × 2" $ 15.90
1 single sliding, 4' × 7' 9" × 2" 11.34
1 single sliding, 3' × 7' 9" × 2" 8.97
1 lavatory, 2' 4" × 6' × 1¾" (frame included in
paneling) 4.93
2 closet doors, 22" × 7' 9" × 1¾", solid molded,
including glass in upper panel, at $5 each 10.00
1 front door, 3' 2" × 7' 9" × 2¼", three-panel,
glass in top panel, price, including glass 12.75
1 vestibule door, 3' 2" × 7' 9" × 2¼", three-panel,
glass in top panel, price, including glass 12.75
Veneered chestnut and pine doors:
1 in butler's pantry, 2' 8" × 7' 9" × 2" 7.50
1 in butler's pantry, 2' 8" × 7' 9" × 1¾" 6.71
White-pine doors, raised panels:
2 glass doors, 2' 4" × 5' × 1¼", one-panel, at $3
(china closet, no frames) 6.00
4 doors, 2' 8" × 7' 9" × 1¾", five-panel,
solid moldings, at $4.13 each 16.52
2 doors, 2' 6" × 7' 9" × 1¾", five-panel,
solid moldings, at $3.91 each 7.82
1 door, 2' 10" × 7' 9" × 2", five-panel, solid molded 6.59
2 outside cellar doors, at $2 each 4.00
-------
Total $131.78

DOORS, SECOND FLOOR
_Quantities and Cost_

1½-inch white pine, five-panel, solid molded, raised panels:
8 doors, 2' 8" × 7' 6", at $4 $32.00
6 doors, 2' 6" × 7' 6", at $3.75 22.50
1 door, 2' 6" × 3' 6" 1.75
1 door, 2' 2" × 7' 6" 3.20
1 door, 2' 4" × 7' 6" 3.40
2 wardrobe doors, 2' 2" × 6' × 1¼", including glass
panels, at $2 each 4.00
------
Total $66.85

DOORS, ATTIC
_Quantities and Cost_
White pine, similar to second floor:
[18]1 stuck-molded door, 2' 6" × 6' 6", glass panel $ 4.70
6 doors, 2' 8" × 6' 8", at $3.60 21.60
-------
Total $ 26.30

_Summary_
First story $131.78
Second story 66.85
Attic 26.30
-------
Total cost of doors $224.93

[17] The prices of doors do not include hardware, which item will be
found in the hardware bill, but they include putting on the hardware.

[18] This door opens to the balcony.

WINDOW FRAMES, CELLAR
_Quantities and Cost_

No. 2 white pine, 1½" × 7" rabbeted jambs and head,
and 2" × 7" sill. Complete, set in place:
1 window, 3 lights, 13" × 10" $ 1.16
2 windows, 1 light, 16" × 10", at 48 cents each .96
4 windows, 2 lights, 14" × 10", at 83 cents each 3.32
3 windows, 2 lights, 11" × 10", at 66 cents each 1.98
2 windows, 2 lights, 13" × 10", at 78 cents each 1.56
1 window, 3 lights, 11" × 10" .99
------
Total $ 9.97

WINDOW FRAMES, FIRST STORY
_Quantities and Cost_

Box frames, pulley stiles and hanging stiles 1⅛", sills
2", and outer casing ⅞", all of No. 2 white pine.
Inside casing chestnut, with molded back band
5½" × ⅞", stool 4" × 1⅛", apron 5" × ⅞", sash stop
½" × 1½".

Frames in brickwork. Complete, set in place:
1 window, 2 lights, 40" × 32" $ 7.80
2 windows, 2 lights, 18" × 32", at $3.16 each 6.32
1 window, 2 lights, 24" × 32" 4.18
1 window, 2 lights, 34" × 32" 5.88
2 windows, 2 lights, 36" × 32", curved, at $12.24 24.48
1 window, 2 lights, 30" × 32" 5.10
1 window, 2 lights, 22" × 24" 2.80
1 window, 4 lights, 31" × 32" (double) 10.55
2 windows, 6 lights, 15" × 28" (casement), at $6.70 13.40
------
Total $80.51

Pulley stiles 1⅛", sill 2", sub-sills 1⅛", outside
casings ⅞", inside casing with molded back band
5½" × ⅞", stool 4" × 1⅛", apron 5" × ⅞", sash stop
½" × 1½", all of white pine.

Frames in wooden walls. Complete, set in place:
1 window, single light, 14" × 28" $ 1.04
3 windows, 2 lights, 26" × 32", at $4.42 each 13.26
1 window, 2 lights, 22" × 32" 3.74
------
Total $18.04

WINDOW FRAMES, SECOND STORY
_Quantities and Cost_
1 window, single light, 14" × 28" $ 1.04
2 windows, 2 lights, 44" × 28", at $6.54 each 13.08
2 windows, 2 lights, 23" × 28", at $3.40 each 6.80
3 windows, 2 lights, 28" × 28", at $4.18 each 12.54
2 windows, 2 lights, 36" × 28" (curved), at $10.72 each 21.44
3 windows, 2 lights, 26" × 28", at $3.90 each 11.70
1 window, 2 lights, 20" × 28" 2.98
4 windows, 2 lights, 30" × 38", at $6.07 each 24.28
------
Total $93.86

WINDOW FRAMES, ATTIC
_Quantities and Cost_
2 windows, 2 lights, 18" × 18", at $1.69 each $ 3.38
1 window (circular), 24" diameter 2.27
2 double windows, 4 lights, 22" × 24" (curved),
at $11.22 each 22.44
1 double window, 4 lights, 21" × 24" 5.35
1 double window, 4 lights, 28" × 20" 5.96
1 double window, 4 lights, 24" × 20" 5.10
1 window, 2 lights, 28" × 20" 2.98
1 window, 2 lights, 30" × 28" 4.46
------
Total $51.94

_Summary_
Cellar $ 9.97
First story in brick walls 80.51
First story in frame 18.04
Second story 93.86
Attic 51.94
-------
Total cost of window frames $254.32

WINDOW SASH, CELLAR
_Quantities and Cost_
1½-inch white pine, glazed (double American),
price not including hardware:
1 sash, 3 lights, 13" × 10" $ 1.14
2 sashes, single light, 16" × 10", at 47 cents each .94
4 sashes, 2 lights, 14" × 10", at 82 cents each 3.28
3 sashes, 2 lights, 11" × 10", at 64 cents each 1.92
2 sashes, 2 lights, 13" × 10", at 76 cents each 1.52
1 sash, 3 lights, 11" × 10" .96
------
Total $ 9.76

WINDOW SASH, FIRST STORY
_Quantities and Cost_
Chestnut, 1¾ inch, prices including glazing (double American),
hanging sash, and putting on stops:
1 pair, single light, 40" × 32" $ 7.47
2 pair, single light, 18" × 32", at $3.36 per pair 6.72
1 pair, single light, 24" × 32" 4.48
1 pair, single light, 34" × 32" 6.35
2 pair, single light, 36" × 32" (curved),
at $20.16 per pair 40.32
2 pair, single light, 31" × 32", at $5.79 per pair 11.58
1 pair, single light, 30" × 32" 5.60
1 pair, single light, 22" × 24" 3.08
2 pair, 3 lights, 15" × 28" (casement), at $7.35 per pair 4.70

Pine:
1 sash, single light, 14" × 28" 1.14
3 pair, single light, 26" × 32", at $4.85 per pair 14.55
1 pair, single light, 22" × 32" 4.11
-------
Total $120.10

WINDOW SASH, SECOND STORY
_Quantities and Cost_
Pine:
1 sash, single light, 14" × 28" $ 1.14
2 pair, single light, 44" × 28", at $7.19 per pair 14.38
2 pair, single light, 23" × 28", at $3.76 per pair 7.52
3 pair, single light, 28" × 28", at $4.57 per pair 13.71
2 pair, single light, 36" × 28" (curved),
at $17.64 per pair 35.28
3 pair, single light, 26" × 28", at $4.25 per pair 12.75
1 pair, single light, 20" × 28" 3.27
4 pair, single light, 30" × 28", at $4.90 per pair 19.60
-------
Total $107.70

WINDOW SASH, ATTIC
_Quantities and Cost_
2 pair, single light, 18" × 18", at $1.89 per pair $ 3.78
1 sash, circular, 24-inch diameter 2.52
4 pair, single light, 22" × 24" (curved),
at $9.24 per pair 36.96
2 pair, single light, 21" × 24", at $2.94 per pair 5.88
3 pair, single light, 28" × 20", at $3.27 per pair 9.81
2 pair, single light, 24" × 20", at $2.80 per pair 5.60
1 pair, single light, 30" × 28" 4.90
-------
Total $ 69.45

SCREEN FRAMES FOR PORCH
_Quantities and Cost_

Rails and stiles, white pine, 4" × 1½", two muntins each:
1 frame, 36" × 16" $ .51
1 frame, 90" × 16" 1.27
1 frame, 88" × 16" 1.25
1 frame, 60" × 16" .85
2 frames, 94" × 16", at $1.33 each 2.66
2 frames, 66" × 16", at 93 cents each 1.86
1 frame, 24" × 16" .34
1 frame, 84" × 16" 1.19
1 frame, 20" × 16" .33
-------
Total $ 10.26

_Summary_
Cellar $ 9.76
First story 120.10
Second story 107.70
Attic 69.45
Screens 10.26
-------
Total cost of window sash $ 317.27

CELLAR STAIRS
_Quantities and Cost_
52 ft. of hemlock, at 3 cents per foot $ 1.56
46 ft. of planed white pine, at 4½ cents per foot 2.07
Labor: 12 risers, at 20 cents each 2.40
------
Total $ 6.03

BACK STAIRS
_Quantities and Cost_
72 ft. ⁵/₄ planed white pine, at 6 cents per foot $ 4.32
White-pine hand rails, 18 ft., at 6 cents per foot 1.08
Labor: 13 risers, at 40 cents each 5.20
-------
Total $ 10.60

MAIN STAIRS
_Quantities and Cost_
335 ft. of hemlock, at 3 cents per foot $ 10.05
185 ft. of chestnut, at 10 cents per foot 18.50
49 ft. of chestnut hand rail, at 60 cents per foot 29.40
86 turned chestnut balusters, 2" × 2" × 10",
at 12 cents each 10.32
1 box newel, 8" × 8" × 4' 6", chestnut, paneled,
with molded cap 6.00
7 newels, 5" × 5" × 4' 6", chestnut, with turned pendants,
at $4 28.00
2 newels, 5" × 5" × 12', chestnut, with turned caps,
at $6 12.00
Spandrel, 30 sq. ft., 10 raised panels, ⅞-inch thick
stiles and rails, 1¼-inch thick planted molding,
at 35 cents per square foot 10.50
Paneled partition under stairs, chestnut, 17 sq. ft.,
at 35 cents per square foot 5.95
String molding, 46' of 1½" × 3", chestnut, at 3½ cents 1.61
Skirt molding, 46' of 1½" × ¾", chestnut, 1¼ cents .58
Soffit molding, 38' of ⅝" × 2", chestnut, 1½ cents .57
Labor: 35 risers, at $2 each 70.00
-------
Total $203.48

_Summary_
Cellar stairs $ 6.03
Back stairs 10.60
Main stairs 203.48
-------
Total cost of stairs $220.11

MISCELLANEOUS INTERIOR JOINERY
_Baseboard_
First story:
Chestnut, ⅞" × 6", with molding worked on face,
tongued into surbase, 1⅛" × 6", 139 ft.,
at 30 cents per linear foot $ 41.70
White pine, ⅞" × 9", plain, 90 ft.,
at 33 cents per linear foot 29.70
Second story:
White pine, ⅞" × 9", molded, 300 ft.,
at 33 cents per linear foot 99.00
Attic:
White pine, ⅞" × 6", molded, 290 ft., at 24 cents 69.60
-------
Total $240.00

_Wainscoting_
First story:
Chestnut, ⅞" × 2½", beaded and matched boards,
4 ft. high, 33 ft. long, 132 sq. ft.,
at 8 cents per square foot, dining room $ 10.56
Molded cap, 1½" × 1½", 33 ft., at 3 cents per foot .99
Chestnut, paneled, 67' × 4' high = 268 sq. ft.,
at 35 cents per square foot 93.80
Molded cap, 1¼" × 4", 67 ft., at 10 cents per foot 6.70
Second story (bathroom):
White pine, ⅞" × 2½", matched boards, 4 ft. high,
128 sq. ft., at 8 cents per square foot 10.24
Molded cap, 1½" × 1½", 32 ft., at 3 cents per foot .96
-------
Total $123.25

_Picture Molding_
Chestnut, 3" × 1½", 231 ft., at 9 cents $ 20.79

_China Closet_
Chestnut, dressed, 97 ft. B. M., at 10 cents per foot $ 9.70
Crown molding, 1" × 3", 8 ft., at 8 cents per foot .64
Labor: 1 man, 2 days, at $3.20 6.40
-------
Total $ 16.74

_Shelving_
No. 2 white pine, 50 ft. B. M., at 4½ cents per foot $ 2.25
Labor: 1 man, 1 day, at $3.20 3.20
------
Total $ 5.45

_Summary_
Baseboard $240.00
Wainscoting 123.25
Picture molding 20.79
China closet 16.74
Shelving 5.45
-------
Total cost of miscellaneous interior joinery $406.23

MISCELLANEOUS EXTERIOR WORK
_Moldings_

356 ft. crown molding, 1" × 4", at 5½ cents $ 19.58
356 ft. bed molding, 1" × 3", at 4 cents 14.24
356 ft. bed molding, 1" × 1½", at 3 cents 10.68
74 ft. bed molding, 1" × 2", at 3 cents 2.22
356 ft. bed molding, ½" × ⅞", at 1½ cents 5.34
64 ft. neck molding, at 1 cent .64
36 ft. cove molding, ⅞" × 1⅛", at 3 cents 1.08
White pine:
35 ft. triglyphs, at 10 cents 3.50
207 turned balusters, 2" × 1' 6", for porches,
at 10 cents 20.70
92 ft. molded hand rail, 5" × 3", at 11 cents 10.12
92 ft. bottom rail, 5" × 3", at 11 cents 10.12
200 dentils, 2" × 2" × 3", at 1½ cents 3.00
137 ft. window cap, 3" × 1½", at 3 cents 4.11
23 ft. B. M., for balustrade posts, at 4½ cents 1.04
Casing for circular window 1.00
Semicircular head casing over outside door in dormer 2.00
-------
Total cost of exterior work $109.37

_Recapitulation of Cost of Joinery_
Door frames $158.67
Doors 224.93
Window frames 254.32
Window sash 317.27
Stairs 220.11
Miscellaneous interior joinery 406.23
Miscellaneous exterior work 109.37
---------
Total cost of joinery $1,690.90

HARDWARE

=9.= The prices given in the following list are based on the use of
the best quality of hardware in the market. Should inferior quality be
used, these prices would probably be 50 per cent. less. The cost of
labor is assumed to be one-fifth the cost of the hardware.

LOCKS
_Quantities and Cost_
One 5⅜-inch mortise front-door lock, with bronze
furniture complete $6.00
One 4½-inch mortise vestibule-door lock, with bronze
furniture complete 5.50
One 5½-inch flush pull mortise lock for double
sliding-door 3.00
Two 5½-inch flush pull mortise locks for single
sliding-door, at $2.25 4.50
Eighteen 4½-inch mortise knob locks, at $2.20 39.60
Ten 4-inch cupboard lock sets, at $1.85 18.50
Six 2⅜-inch mortise knob locks, at $1.50 9.00
One 2-inch steel spring padlock .50
------
Total $86.60

HINGES
_Quantities and Cost_
1 pair double-acting checking spring hinges with
bronze push plates, for double-acting door $10.50
2 pair 5" × 5" bronze loose pin butts, at $2.50 5.00
33 pair 4" × 4" bronze loose pin butts, at $1.90 62.70
2 pair 3" × 3" bronze loose pin butts, at $1.35 2.70
------
Total $80.90

MISCELLANEOUS HARDWARE
_Quantities and Cost_
Thirty-two 1⅛" × 2⅝" bronze sash fasts, at 40 cents $12.80
Five 2" × 2¼" bronze cupboard turns, at 40 cents 2.00
Four 6" × 1¼" bronze flush bolts, at $1.25 5.00
3 doz. 3-inch japanned-iron coat hooks, at 25 cents .75
One galvanized-iron hasp and staple .20
One McCabe patent door hanger, double 3.50
Two McCabe patent door hangers, single, at $2 4.00
Four 2¼-inch bronze draw pulls, at 10 cents .40
------
Total $28.65

_Summary_
Locks $86.60
Butts 80.90
Miscellaneous 28.65
-------
Total cost of hardware $196.15

HEATING AND VENTILATING SYSTEM

=10.= A house as large as the one under consideration should be
heated either by steam or by hot water. However, a furnace is used in
this case, not because it is the best practice, but because it gives
practice in estimating on a furnace, which is more important than
estimating on either steam or hot water. In taking off quantities for
the heating and ventilating contract, attention should be given to
the fact that the furnace and pipes, registers and borders, and the
fireplace furniture are usually supplied by different manufacturers.

FURNACE
_Quantities and Cost_
One 53-inch cast-iron portable furnace set up in place $125.00

WARM-AIR AND SMOKE PIPES
_Quantities and Cost_

12 ft. of 4" × 8" tin W. A. pipe, at 12½ cents $ 1.50
12 ft. of 3" × 12" tin W. A. pipe, at 15 cents 1.80
13 ft. of 4" × 10" tin W. A. pipe, at 15 cents 1.95
61 ft. of 10-inch round tin W. A. pipe, at 16 cents 9.76
12½ ft. of 8-inch round tin W. A. pipe, at 12½ cents 1.56
4 ft. of 8-inch galvanized-iron smoke pipe, at 15 cents .60
17 ft. of 10-inch round, fireclay flue lining,
at 25 cents 4.25
2½ ft. of 8-inch round, fireclay flue lining,
at 20 cents .50
Labor, one-half of cost of materials 10.96
-------
Total $ 32.88

REGISTERS
_Quantities and Cost_
Three 14" × 16" japanned floor registers and borders,
at $3.85 $ 11.55
One 7" × 10" japanned floor register and border .85
One 12" × 15" japanned floor register and border 2.25
Two 7" × 9" japanned floor registers and borders,
at 85 cents 1.70
One 10" × 12" japanned floor register and border 1.26
Two 12" × 15" japanned wall registers and borders,
at $2.25 4.50
One 10" × 12" japanned wall register and border 1.26
Labor, one-third of cost of materials 7.79
-------
Total $ 31.16

TIN REGISTER BOXES
_Quantities and Cost_
Three 14" × 16" × 4", at 80 cents $ 2.40
One 7" × 10" × 4" .57
Two 10" × 12" × 4", at 75 cents 1.50
Two 15" × 12" × 4", at 75 cents 1.50
Two 7" × 9" × 4", at 57 cents 1.14
Labor, one-third of cost of materials 2.37
------
Total $ 9.48

MISCELLANEOUS
_Quantities and Cost_
Fifteen elbows, 10 in. in diameter, at 35 cents $ 5.25
Two elbows, 8 in. in diameter, at 25 cents .50
Ten sheets of "IC" tin, 20" × 28", at 20 cents 2.00
Two cold-air boxes, each 24 ft. long, of 20-inch
earthen pipe, with two slide dampers and screens 38.40
Labor: one-third of cost of materials 15.38
------
Total $61.53

_Summary_
Furnace $125.00
Warm-air and smoke pipes 32.88
Registers and borders 31.16
Register boxes 9.48
Miscellaneous 61.53
-------
Total cost of heating and ventilating system $260.05

PLUMBING

=11.= A complete list of the plumbing fixtures, together with the
sizes, lengths, and materials of all pipes, should be tabulated so
that any item can be easily referred to in case of alteration in the
schedule.

FIXTURES
_Quantities and Cost_
One double-oven brick-set kitchen range with
water-back; to be selected by the owner; complete $50.00
One Class A, white-glazed earthenware sink, 30" × 20" × 7";
with porcelain back 15 in. high, and with porcelain
legs; 2-inch cast brass, nickel-plated; =S=-trap
with waste pipe to floor; and improved Fuller faucets;
telescopic ash drain board; complete 45.00
One Class A, 20" × 30" porcelain recess pantry sink,
white enameled inside, with nickel-plated standing
waste overflow; with nickel-plated 1½-inch brass
trap and pipe to floor; nickel-plated supply pipes
to floor; nickel-plated 2-inch supporting stand,
and heavy nickel-plated Fuller faucets, marked
_hot_ and _cold_; complete 40.00
One 5' 6" porcelain-lined, roll rim, Roman pattern,
cast-iron bath, with cast-iron feet, painted one
coat outside, with nickel-plated combination
standing waste, compression star handle supply
valves at foot, with _hot_ and _cold_
name plates; complete 40.00
One improved porcelain siphon-jet water closet,
with quartered-oak seat and cover, quartered-oak
siphon cistern, with nickel-plated brass brackets,
nickel-plated brass flush pipe; nickel-plated chain
and china pull, and brass floor flange; complete 30.00
One enameled-iron corner, lavatory, 17½" × 17½" ×
12", with 12" × 15" =D=-shaped basin with
nickel-plate cocks and pipes; all complete 30.00
One enameled-iron corner lavatory slab 16" × 16" ×
6", with enameled back and aprons, soap cup, 11" × 14"
bowl, No. 0 Fuller faucets, and “Penn” waste; complete 20.00
One set of 3 Class B, white porcelain wash tubs, 26
inches long, with N. P. brass waste and star handle
cocks, and wringer base; all complete 60.00
-------
Cost of fixtures $315.00

WATER SUPPLY
_Quantities and Cost_
One 40-gallon, extra-heavy, galvanized-iron boiler,
stand and couplings; complete $15.00
Tapping and corporation-cock permits 5.00
One curb box 2.00
10 ft. 1-inch brass pipe and fittings 5.00
40 ft. 1-inch AAA lead pipe 19.00
44 ft. 1-inch galvanized-iron pipe 4.00
120 ft. ¾-inch galvanized-iron pipe 9.00
80 ft. ½-inch galvanized-iron pipe 5.00
30 pounds of fittings 6.00
One 1-inch stop and waste cock 1.50
Eight ¾-inch stop and waste cocks 7.00
Three ½-inch stop and waste cocks 2.50
Straps and hangers 1.00
Two garden hose bibbs 2.00
------
Cost of water-supply system $84.00

DRAINAGE
_Quantities and Cost_
213 ft. 4-inch, extra-heavy, cast-iron, asphalt-coated
soil pipe $ 60.00
20 ft. 3-inch, extra-heavy, cast-iron, asphalt-coated
soil pipe 4.50
110 ft. 2-inch, extra-heavy, cast-iron, asphalt-coated
soil pipe 16.50
30 ft. 4-inch, extra-heavy, cast-iron, asphalt-coated,
soil-pipe fittings 24.00
4 ft. 3-inch, extra-heavy, cast-iron, asphalt-coated,
soil-pipe fittings 2.50
24 ft. 2-inch, extra-heavy, cast-iron, asphalt-coated,
soil-pipe fittings 7.50
90 ft. 6-inch, salt-glazed, earthenware sewer pipe 10.00
62 ft. 5-inch, salt-glazed, earthenware sewer pipe 6.00
140 ft. 4-inch, salt-glazed, earthenware sewer pipe 8.00
One 6-inch fitting 1.00
Seven 5-inch fittings 4.00
Eighteen 4-inch fittings 7.00
Portland cement 2.00
100 lb. of lead 5.00
Oakum 1.00
Wall hooks 1.00
One 4-inch running trap 2.00
Four 4-inch ground brass ferrule cleanouts 2.00
Three cast-iron manhole covers 3.00
One fresh-air inlet box 1.00
One 4-inch lead bend 1.50
One 4-inch brass ferrule .35
10 ft. 2-inch lead waste pipe 2.50
14 ft. 1½-inch lead pipe 2.50
Twelve 2-inch brass ferrules 1.50
Two 2-inch lead traps 2.50
2 sq. ft. 6-pound sheet lead .90
Three 4-inch wire-basket strainers .40
20 lb. of wiping solder 5.00
-------
Total $185.15

LABOR

Labor, assumed to be one-fourth cost of all materials
= $584.15 × .25 = $146.04

_Summary_
Fixtures $315.00
Water-supply system 84.00
Drainage 185.15
Labor 146.04
-------
Total cost of plumbing $730.19

GAS-FITTING

=12.= Following is given the cost of buying and installing the
various gas fixtures and pipes that are used in the building under
consideration:

FIXTURES
_Quantities and Cost_

Cellar:
2 brackets, 1 burner, each at 50 cents $ 1.00
First floor:
Parlor, 1 chandelier, 4 burners 50.00
2 brackets, stiff, 2 burners, each at $10 20.00
Dining room, 1 chandelier, 5 burners 45.00
2 brackets, stiff, 1 burner, each at $5 10.00
Hall, 1 chandelier, 4 burners 30.00
Library, 1 chandelier, 6 burners 50.00
2 brackets, stiff, 2 burners, each at $10 20.00
Lavatory, 1 bracket, 1 burner, stiff 2.50
Kitchen, 1 center fixture, 2 burners 4.00
1 side light, stiff, 1 burner 1.00
Butler’s pantry, 1 drop light, 2 burners 4.00
Pantry, 1 side light, stiff, 1 burner 1.00
Cellar stairs, 1-bracket light, 1 burner .50
Second floor:
Bedrooms, 11 double-swing brackets, 1 burner, at $5 55.00
Dressing room, 1 double-swing, plain, 1 burner 2.00
Hall, 1 stiff bracket, 2 burners 6.00
Stair landing, 2 stiff brackets, 1 burner, each at $4 8.00
Bathroom, 1 bracket, double swing, plain, 1 burner 3.00
Attic rooms, 5 stiff brackets, 1 burner, each at $.75 3.75
-------
Total $316.75

PIPE AND FITTINGS
_Quantities and Cost_
54 ft. 1½-inch pipe, at 10 cents $ 5.40
30 ft. ¾-inch pipe, at 6 cents 1.80
30 ft. ½-inch pipe, at 4 cents 1.20
205 ft. ⅜-inch pipe, at 3 cents 6.15
Fittings 4.00
-------
Total $ 18.55

LABOR
Labor, assumed to be one-seventh the cost of materials
(fixtures, pipes, etc.) = $335.30 ÷ 7 = $ 47.90

_Summary_
Fixtures $316.75
Pipe and fittings 18.55
Labor 47.90
-------
Total cost of gas-fitting $383.20

WIRING

=13.= At the present time, most houses that are as large as the one
under consideration are equipped with electric door bells, and probably
with electric bells from some of the living rooms to the kitchen. Such
an equipment would cost, say, $25.

In most houses of this size, where available, both electricity and gas
are used for lighting purposes. The cost of wiring this house complete
for electric lights, including six wall switches, besides two three-way
switches for the hall light, so that it can be operated either from
the upper or lower floor, is about $325 if iron-armored conduit is
used. If electric lights are used, the lighting fixtures must be
combination fixtures, that is, fixtures that can be used for both gas
and electricity. This will add about 40 per cent. to the cost of the
gas fixtures, or 40 per cent. of $316.75, which amounts to $126.70.

The total cost of wiring is therefore as follows:

Electric bells $ 25.00
Light wiring 325.00
Extra cost of fixtures 126.70
-------
Total $476.70

PAINTING

=14.= In taking off quantities for painting, it is customary to
estimate the cost by assuming a price per square yard for each class of
work, instead of estimating the material and labor separately.

EXTERIOR WORK
_Quantities_

Three coats of pure linseed oil and white lead in four colors:
SQUARE
YARDS
Shingles (see item in Carpentry estimate) 269
Main cornice 130
Porch cornice 22
Porch posts 32
Spandrels 40
Porch skirting 14
Balustrade 52
Sash 64
Window sills 16
Porch floors and steps 72
---
Total 711

SQUARE
YARDS
One coat orange shellac and one of varnish:
Porch ceiling (see item in Carpentry estimate) 58

INTERIOR WORK
_Quantities_

Chestnut finish, parlor, library, dining room, hall,
stair hall, lavatory, and stairway. One coat of wood
paste filler, one coat of white shellac, and three
coats of varnish, rubbed down with pumice stone and
water:
SQUARE
YARDS
Architrave 32
Base 16
Wainscoting 30
Sash 17
Doors 54
Jamb casings 7
Stairway 50
Balustrade of stairway 20
---
Total 226

White pine, natural finish, all of house not finished
in chestnut. One coat of spirit shellac and two
coats of varnish:
SQUARE
YARDS
Architrave 73
Base 60
Wainscoting 29
Sash 40
Dresser 9
Doors 131
Jamb casings 31
Back stairs 34
---
Total 407

_Cost_
Exterior work, 711 sq. yd., at 30 cents
per square yard $213.30
Porch ceiling, 58 sq. yd., at 20 cents
per square yard 11.60
Chestnut finish, 226 sq. yd., at 75 cents
per square yard 169.50
White pine, natural finish, 407 sq. yd., at 25 cents
per square yard 101.75
-------
Total cost of painting $496.15

Summary of Cost of Building

=15.= Having estimated the cost of work required of each trade, a
summary of the whole will express the total estimated cost of the
building.

Excavation and filling $ 285.99
Stonework 1,793.83
Brickwork 1,079.16
Carpentry 2,001.57
Roofing 553.18
Plastering 1,025.18
Joinery 1,690.90
Hardware 196.15
Heating and ventilation 260.05
Plumbing 730.19
Gas-fitting 383.20
Electric wiring 476.70
Painting 496.15
----------
Total cost $10,972.25

This total cost does not include any extras or builder’s profits.

MILL DESIGN

SITE AND ARRANGEMENT

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

INTRODUCTION

=1.= The requirements of the modern factory building are many, and
demand the careful attention of the architect in their planning and
construction. There are probably more rules and regulations imposed
by the state and local governments and by the Insurance Underwriters,
regulating the construction of this class of buildings, than for
buildings of any other character.

The laws imposed by the governments under whose jurisdiction the
building is to be erected, are framed manifestly for the protection of
the health and safety of the occupants of the building, and so as not
to jeopardize their lives in case of fire or panic, or the lives of
those engaged in the attempt to save the structure and prevent damage
to the adjoining property.

The Underwriters, or the Association of Insurance Companies, have
compiled numerous rules and regulations of which the architect planning
the building must take cognizance if he desires to secure a reasonable
rate of insurance on the building and its contents for the owner. Not
only do these rules and regulations deal with the structural design of
the building, but they consider the apparatus for protection in case
of fire, and such installations as the electric wiring. The architect
must be familiar with all these requirements in order to intelligently
and practically design industrial plants.

There are, also, many factors essential to the utilitarian and economic
operation of the building entering into the design of the modern
factory, to which the architect must devote careful study. Among
the most important of these are the economic receiving, shipping,
elevation, and transportation of merchandise; the proper and adequate
lighting of the building; the location and planning of the power
plant for the building, together with the engineering problems of
construction, which include the design of the floor, columns, and walls
for the loads to which they are subjected.

CLASSIFICATION OF FACTORY BUILDINGS

=2.= Classified according to their construction, factory buildings may
be divided into three types, which, for convenience, may be designated
as _first-_, _second-_, and _third-class buildings_. A similar division
to this is also frequently made by the state or municipal laws for the
regulation of the construction of factory buildings.

=3. First-Class Buildings.=—Buildings of the first class are those in
which the walls, floors, columns, girders, beams, partitions, and roofs
are of stone, brick, terra cotta, concrete, steel, iron, and such other
fireproof materials as have been proven to be efficient. Buildings of
this class may be considered as constituting an entirely fireproof
building, which means that while the contents of the building may burn,
the building itself will remain intact, unless subjected to the severe
action of a prolonged conflagration.

=4. Second-Class Buildings.=—Buildings of the second class are
considered to include what is known as slow-burning, or the typical
factory-construction, type, in which all posts or girders must be
of heavy and massive timber, and the floor construction at least
3 inches in thickness, and of solid planking. In buildings of the
second class, while it is permissible to use combustible materials,
they must be of such sizes and of such slow combustion that the
security of the building will be insured for a reasonable time after
the conflagration has commenced. It is usual, therefore, in this
class of building, to limit the size of the wooden posts to not less
than 8 inches square, though their strength may be greatly in excess
of the load they are required to support, and girders and beams are
used whose least dimension is 6 inches or more. In buildings of this
character, it is frequently necessary to use steel beams and columns in
order to obtain the strength for the great floor loads to which these
members are liable to be subjected. When such steel or iron columns
are used, however, they must be fireproofed, because even though made
of incombustible material, they would not have the same endurance in
a fire as have heavy wooden girders or posts, and their failure would
precipitate the fall of the floor. Wooden girders and posts, even
when charred part way through, have still sufficient strength for the
support of the load for which they were designed.

=5. Third-Class Buildings.=—Buildings of the third class are not
particularly recommended for the construction of factory buildings, for
the floors of these may be of the ordinary joist and finished floor
construction. Such buildings are readily ignitible and burn rapidly,
not only because the timber work in them is light, but because of the
numerous air spaces that exist between joists and in the furring of the
walls. No building with air space surrounded by combustible materials
can be considered as slow burning.

FACTORY PLANNING

=6. Considerations in Planning.=—The outline of the building is
determined by the site, and owing to irregularities in the site
generally purchased for manufactory purposes, it is frequently
difficult to properly design buildings of this character. The factors
that probably influence the design mostly, after the location of the
column supports, and consequently the spacing of the windows has been
determined upon, are the stairways and elevators.

In many cases, these are the only subdivisions of the main-floor plans,
and in order to comply with the rules and regulations of the local or
state governments, and of the Underwriters’ Association, they demand
primary consideration. The stairways must as well be easy of access,
while the elevators must be conveniently located for the delivery and
receipt of goods from the first floor of the building.

Another factor that is likely to enter into consideration of the design
is the toilet rooms, which must be placed against an outside wall, and
convenient to any part of the floor.

ARRANGEMENT OF STAIR TOWERS

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

=7. The Enclosed Stairway.=—The important consideration in the planning
of factory stairways is to provide a quick, easy, and safe egress for
the occupants in case of fire. While it is necessary to have good
liberal stairways for communication between the floors, this is not
such an important feature in factory design, from the fact that there
is little travel of employes between the floors, in a modern factory,
as each individual’s work is usually apportioned to him and confined
to a particular location, and therefore does not require him to be on
different floors during the day.

The common type of factory stairway is that designated in Fig. 1. This
shows a brick-enclosed stairway with the doors entering it direct from
the factory. Such a stairway enclosure as this should have tin-lined
doors as at _a_, which fireproof the opening. Even then the security of
a stairway of this character is not certain, from the fact that these
doors may be left open, and are open to the stairway during the egress
of the occupants. With a severe fire, therefore, on any floor, such a
stairway is likely to be filled with smoke to suffocation, and liable
to ignition from the door openings. It can therefore only be regarded
as a makeshift for a fire-escape, or fire-tower. It is also well, in
the design of such a stairway, to observe that the doors always open
outwards, and not only this, but that they open with the tide of people
coming down the stairs. For instance, in the figure the door _a_ is
opened correctly, but if the flights of steps marked _down_ and _up_
were transposed, then people coming down the flight _c_ would press
against the door at _a_ and prevent the people in the room _d_ from
getting out to the stairs and hence to safety.

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

=8. Enclosed Fire-Escape, or Stair Towers.=—Various designs for
brick-enclosed stairways of factory buildings have been recommended at
different times by the insurance companies. Two of these designs are
designated in Fig. 2 and show the elevator included, as well as the
stairway, in the tower.

A study of these plans will show that there is no direct communication
from the building to the stair tower, and that the only way by which
the stair tower may be entered is through an open balcony, which
communicates with a door in the side walls of the building, at each
floor. The brick-enclosed stair tower is shown in the figure at _a_,
the open galleries at _b_, and the door of egress from the factory at
_c_. By means of this arrangement, the occupants of each floor can,
in case of fire, go through the door in the side wall, on to the open
balcony, and into the fire-tower, thence down stairs or elevator to the
ground floor and safety. Because of the openness of the balcony, which
is surrounded with a strong rail, and partially covered by the gallery
above, the fire could hardly be sufficiently great on any floor to make
it untenantable, and no smoke or flames could communicate with the
fire-tower.

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

=9. Vestibule Fire-Tower Stairway.=—While the arrangement just
described is rational, the fire-tower is of such dimensions as would
ordinarily preclude its use in the modern building where ground space
is valuable and every inch of surface must be economized.

The best possible design, therefore, for a fire-tower is that indicated
in Fig. 3. This construction is known as the =vestibule fire-tower=,
and from the plan it is seen that this combines safety and utility
in a small amount of space. The opening marked _a_ in the plan is
always open to the weather, and the floor of the vestibule is usually
concreted and graded to a drain that connects with the rain conductor
of the roof at _b_. By this arrangement, a well-protected line of
travel is obtained between the stairway and the buildings on each
floor, the occupants of the building being protected by the parapet
wall and iron railing, as indicated at _c c_. To this vestibule from
the factory a tin-lined, or fireproof, door must be provided, so
that after the people have left one floor it can be cut off from the
vestibule.

In the construction of all fire-towers, their walls must be carried by
means of parapet walls at least 3 feet above the roof of the building,
and the roof over them must be constructed of fireproof material.

When it is required, fireproof windows may be used in the walls of
brick-enclosed fire-towers. These windows may be constructed of sheet
metal and glazed with wire glass. If it is not possible to use such
windows, a skylight may be built over the top of the tower, but this
skylight must be constructed of sheet metal, or other non-combustible
material, and glazed with wire glass.

=10. Number of Fire-Towers.=—The number of tower fire-escapes required
for factory buildings of either the first, second, or third class,
may be established according to the number of stories in height of
the building, and the floor area, in square feet, for each floor;
that is, for buildings of the first class, three or four stories in
height, having one tower, the floor area of any floor may be as much
as 20,000 square feet, while if the height of the building of the same
construction is made twelve stories, the floor area should only be
6,500 square feet.

Where two tower fire-escapes are incorporated in the plan, a building
three or four stories in height may contain as many as 25,000 square
feet in the area of one floor, but if the building were increased to
twelve stories, the floor area of each floor should not exceed 15,000
square feet.

In buildings of the second and third classes, a greater number of tower
fire-escapes should be provided, and it is good practice to supply one
tower fire-escape in a three-story building of these classes for a
floor area not exceeding 10,000 square feet, or two tower fire-escapes
should the floor area not exceed 15,000 square feet. In buildings of
this construction, of from four to six stories in height, the floor
area should not exceed, for one tower fire-escape, from 6,000 to
3,500 square feet of floor area in each floor, while with two tower
fire-escapes the maximum floor area is from 12,000 to 8,000 square feet.

=11. Location of the Fire-Tower.=—Where two tower fire-escapes are used
in a building, they must not be located near to each other, the purpose
always being to provide a second egress in case of one being cut off by
smoke or flame.

In small buildings of considerable height, it is sometimes difficult
to so arrange the plan as to provide two stairways at extreme ends
or corners of the building. In a case like this, it is frequently
necessary to extend balconies along the side of the building, entering
the fire-tower at some more distant point.

ELEVATOR SHAFTS

=12. Location of Shaft.=—In all factories of two or more stories, an
elevator is a necessity for the economic transmission of goods from
one floor to another. While in some instances the elevator is run
through hatch openings in the floor, without being enclosed in brick
walls, it is not good practice, for the openings through the floors
make possible the rapid communication of flames and smoke in case of
fire, even when provided with an automatic closing hatch. Elevators are
therefore generally built in an elevator shaft, the walls of which are
constructed of good hard brick and made from 12 inches to 18 inches in
thickness.

=13. Elevator Doors and Openings.=—In building elevator shafts, it is
necessary to provide door openings at each floor, the openings being
protected with tin-lined fireproof doors. These doors may be either
folding or sliding-doors, it usually being considered best to provide a
sliding-door that will automatically close when a certain temperature
has been reached in the building. It is not always possible, however,
to provide sliding-doors, from the fact that where the elevator shaft
projects out into the room and the door opening is wide, there is no
wall space on which to fasten the track. Customarily, in each door
opening, there is also provided a heavy stone or cast-iron sill. As in
many states the law requires some automatic, or folding, lift gates
for elevator openings, it is the practice to project this sill inside
of the shaft at least 4 inches, in order to provide a bearing and
protection for such gates.

=14. Construction of Openings.=—The openings in the brick walls of an
elevator shaft are constructed ordinarily with rowlock brick arches,
and from the fact that the openings are usually wide, and little jamb
is left on each side of the opening, it is necessary to build 1-inch
round iron rods in the arch above the opening, these tie-rods being
furnished with washer plates at each end.

The jambs of all openings in the elevator shafts should be protected
with cast-iron fenders made of about ½-inch metal, and so constructed
as to return about 4 inches on each face. These jambs are provided with
heavy wrought-iron anchors, which are built into the brickwork in the
process of construction.

[Illustration: (_a_)]

[Illustration: (_b_)

FIG. 4]

=15. Freight Elevators.=—Freight elevators are either corner-guided
or side-guided, the preference being for the latter, as they are
more easily constructed and adjusted, and during the construction of
the elevator shaft it is usual to build into the brickwork blocks of
wood about the thickness of a brick and of sufficient length for the
attachment of the guides. These are cut wedge-shaped on the ends, so
as to hold more firmly in the brickwork. A diagrammatic plan of a
side-guided and corner-guided elevator is illustrated in Fig. 4 (_a_)
and (_b_), respectively.

Owing to the fact that it is necessary to have considerable hoisting
mechanism, at the head of the elevator shaft, the shaft is extended
above the roof, sometimes as much as 5 or 6 feet, for the minimum
height from the elevator platform at the top floor level to the under
side of the beams carrying the mechanism is about 16 feet, and the
sheaves carrying the rope and other mechanism at the top of the shaft
require several more feet.

=16. Elevator-Shaft Windows.=—Frequently, elevator shafts are lighted
with windows. Where such windows open into the building, they must be
constructed with metallic frame and wire glass; but where they open
outside of the building it is not necessary to do this. Where elevator
shafts are lighted from the top, metallic skylights glazed with heavy
glass should be provided. It is not considered such good practice to
use wired glass for this glazing, the idea being that in case of fire,
as each floor is cut off from the elevator shaft with fireproof doors,
vent may be had from the skylight at the top of the shaft when the
glass is broken, and some of the municipal and state laws stipulate
that the skylight at the top of an elevator shaft shall not be less
than two-thirds the area of the shaft.

As there is some mechanism on the bottom of the elevator platform and
at the foot of the shaft, it is necessary to sink the shaft at least 3
feet below the basement floor level, provided that the elevator runs to
the basement floor.

TOILET ROOMS

=17. Location of Toilet Rooms.=—In designing factory buildings where a
great many people are employed, the question of toilet accommodations
is a very necessary consideration.

After the location of the toilet room has been decided on, and it
should be placed as centrally as possible to the floor area, the
number of closets should be determined. It is usually found sufficient
accommodation if one closet is allowed for twenty people. In planning
the toilet room, it is essential, and generally required by law, that
the room shall be located on the outside wall, so that windows will
open directly into it. If the partitions between the compartments
only extend part way toward the ceiling, it is not necessary that
each compartment of the toilet room containing a closet should have
a window. For instance, referring to Fig. 5, which is a typical
arrangement of factory toilets, it is necessary only to provide the
window opening into the outside space surrounding the enclosures around
the closets.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

=18. Material Used for Partitions.=—The partitions of both the
compartments and the toilet room are, in factory construction, usually
built of 1⅛-inch, yellow-pine, tongued-and-grooved, beaded ceiling,
the corners of the partition being braced with 4" × 4" stop-chamfered
yellow-pine posts rabbeted to receive the ceiling. In no instance
should the partitions be constructed with an enclosed space or
concealed work. For hygienic reasons, it is always advisable to
provide toilet rooms with waterproof floors, and the brick walls that
may partially surround the enclosure should be waterproofed for a
distance of at least 1 foot from the floor. The waterproofing commonly
employed for the floors is asphalt or _asbestolin_, the latter being a
composition that is placed directly on the finished floor and forms a
permanent covering about ¼ inch in thickness, and of the nature of the
best cork linoleum.

In waterproofing the walls, about the only practical method to employ
is to give them several coats of an approved waterproof paint.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

Fig. 6 illustrates a reasonably cheap and still excellent construction
for toilet-room enclosures, the several details of the construction
being sufficiently clear without further explanation.

=19. Toilet-Room Fixtures.=—In selecting fixtures for the toilet rooms
of a factory building, only the most serviceable kinds should be used.
In standard work, iron-porcelain siphon-jet closets with overhead
copper-lined flushing tanks are employed. The flushing is controlled
automatically by the action of the seat, which is always raised by
being provided with counterweights. Lids to the closets are never used
in factory installation, from the fact that they are readily broken and
generally out of order.

TYPES OF MILL CONSTRUCTION

GIRDER AND PLANK-ON-EDGE CONSTRUCTION

=20.= In Fig. 7 is designated an economical type of mill construction,
which is much in use. This construction is slow burning in every
respect, and is exceedingly simple, withal being substantial and
presenting a good appearance on the interior of the building. It
will be observed that the column supports of the floor consist of
yellow-pine posts, varying from 20 inches square to 8 or 10 inches
square, the latter being used for the support of the roof. The drawing
shows columns and wall construction suitable for a six- or seven-story
factory building, and the size of post indicated in the basement is
about the maximum.

The girders consist of 6" × 20" yellow-pine pieces bolted together
with ¾-inch bolts, though it is suggested that ⅞-inch bolts would be
preferable. The purpose in bolting up a girder in this way is that the
thinner planks are much more readily obtainable, they are more likely
to be thoroughly seasoned, and a girder built up in this manner is
usually stronger than a solid beam, from the fact that there is less
likelihood of hidden defects existing in the timber and much better
stock can generally be obtained.

=21. Post Caps and Base Plates.=—These girders just described are
supported on cast-iron post caps, similar to the Goetz-Mitchell
construction. These post caps, where they support girders in one
direction only, are usually known as two-way caps. If they support
girders in two directions—that is, transverse and longitudinal—they
are known as four-way caps. These caps are generally cast of ¾-inch
metal, and the girders bear on them at least 4 inches.

For the basement columns, it is usual to provide a cast-iron base
plate, as indicated at _a_. The timber column is sized into the socket
of the base plate, and it is best to carry the top edge of the cap well
above the floor, so that any moisture from leakage or in washing the
floor will not be allowed to penetrate to the wood. Owing to the fact
that this base plate must transmit the entire load on the column to the
brick, it must be heavily webbed on the sides and corners, as indicated
in the plan at _b_.

=22. Concrete Footings.=—It is usual in designing the foundations for
mill buildings to use concrete footings, as indicated in the plan.
It will be noticed in this particular instance, and it is the usual
practice, that the concrete footings are 12 inches in thickness. When
the footings are stepped, as indicated, under the wall of the building,
each footing is made about 12 inches in thickness, with a projection of
not more than 6 or 7 inches.

[Illustration: _Section of finish flooring_

FIG. 8]

=23. Floor Construction.=—The floor construction of the building
consists of 3" × 6" yellow-pine pieces, set on edge and spiked
together. Such a construction as this is available for spans between
girders of from 10 to 15 feet, and does away with all secondary
girders, or beams. It also has an advantage in that it presents a neat
ceiling beneath when the edges of the planks forming the rough flooring
are beveled. On the top of this rough flooring, which is designed for
carrying the floor load, and which is so constructed that the joints
in the different pieces are broken, a 1-inch or 1¼-inch maple flooring
is laid. Maple is used for finished floors in factories principally
on account of its hardness and the excellent wearing surface that it
affords. The maple flooring available in the market runs in lengths of
from 3 to 16 feet, but the cost of the floor is greatly increased if
a minimum length of 6 or 8 feet is specified. Usually the flooring is
tongued and grooved and hollowed on the back, as indicated in Fig. 8.
The hollow back prevents the flooring from curling. In a better class
of finished flooring, the pieces are end-joined, or provided with a
tongue and groove on the end. This prevents the end of the flooring
from turning up and interfering with the smoothness of the floor and
the operation of trucks over it.

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

=24. Waterproofing and Dust Proofing.=—For the purpose of deadening
sound, and sometimes for the sake of waterproofing, sheathing paper or
felt is inserted between the finished flooring and the rough plank. By
the introduction of paper between the maple and the rough flooring,
dust and dirt are prevented from falling through the crevices due to
the shrinkage of the flooring boards above.

It is usual in finishing a floor around the edge to use about 2-inch
quarter-round molding, as indicated at _c_, Fig. 7. This molding is
also used around the wooden columns, or posts.

In order to prevent the posts from splintering at the corner, and
so that there is less likelihood of the occupants being hurt, a
stop-chamfer, or arris, is formed on the corner.

=25. Splice Pieces.=—There is one feature which must not be overlooked
in mill construction, such as occurs in this figure, and that is that
since the girders butt against the columns on top of the post caps,
usually flush, there is nothing to carry the boards at _d_, therefore
yellow-pine pieces or steel angles must be provided, as indicated at
_e_. These splice pieces answer two purposes, namely, to form a bearing
for the ends of the planks _f, f, f_, and also to tie the girders
rigidly together longitudinally, and thus increase the rigidity of the
floor construction.

For a similar reason, it is necessary to form a ledge, either by
reducing the size of the pier above, or by corbeling out, at the window
openings, as shown at _g_, for the support of the floor planks at _h
h_. On the top of the corbel so formed, usually a 3" × 8" yellow-pine
piece is securely anchored to the wall, to provide a bearing for the
ends of the rough floor planking.

=26.= Reference to _i_ and _j_, Fig. 7, shows that there is very
little room between the head of the window and the bottom of the
floor construction. By this means, the maximum amount of light near
the ceiling is obtained, and, besides, the ventilation is greatly
facilitated. This is one of the important features in factory
designing, as well as in school-house architecture.

=27. Foundation Walls and Piers.=—From the section of the wall shown
at _k k_, Fig. 7, it will be observed that the entire building is
practically supported on heavy piers, and that the 13-inch walls below
the window sills are only spandrel fillings. In some instances, 9-inch
walls can be used in these places, but it is not considered advisable
from the fact that beating rain will readily drive through a 9-inch
wall, and, besides, there is hardly sufficient sill for a heavy window
frame.

Attention is particularly called to the construction of the window sill
at _l_. In the better class of construction, heavy bluestone sills 5½
in. × 7½ in. would be used; but for cheap work, it is customary to use
a light 3" × 5" bluestone sill.

Where spandrel fillings more than 13 inches in thickness are used, or
where the thickness of the wall is much greater than the frame, as
indicated at _m_ in the basement, beveled bricks on edge are used for
forming the sloping wall inside. The purpose of the sloping sill is to
prevent the corners from being broken and damaged, and employes from
occupying them.

=28. Terra-Cotta Window Heads.=—In factory construction, the use of
terra-cotta window heads is not unusual, and the construction of such
a window head is indicated at _n_, Fig. 7. Where terra-cotta window
heads are used in this manner, some means of support must be had for
the brickwork above the window head, as terra cotta in itself is of
little use as an arch, or lintel. It is not uncommon to use angle irons
back to back, as indicated on the section of window head _n_. This
construction, of course, can only be used where the wall runs parallel
with the supporting floor, for if the head of the window receives beams
or girders it must necessarily be more strongly and rigidly constructed
with heavy channel irons, or =I= beams.

Where the windows of the basement, as shown at m, are brought down
close to the pavement, it is absolutely necessary that the pavement be
sloped away from these windows with considerable pitch, not less-than
1 inch in 1 foot, as otherwise the water is likely to lay against the
window sill or run under it, causing it to rapidly decay, the capillary
attraction of the window frame drawing up the water.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

=29. Window Openings.=—Referring to Fig. 9, which shows the face view
of a bay of the wall illustrated in section in Fig. 7, the details of
the several window openings in the walls may be studied. The basement
windows are independent frames with double-hung sash, a rowlock brick
arch supporting the brickwork over the window head. In the practice
and design of window heads for mill buildings, it is usual to make the
radius of the window head equal to the width of the reveal. In this
instance, the distance across the opening is 4 feet 3 inches, and the
radius of the arched head is the same dimension.

The windows throughout the balance of the building are twin windows,
double hung, and the construction of the window frame and sash is shown
in the drawing. This frame is what is known as a =reveal frame=, and
is built in as the brickwork progresses. Sometimes the frame is slipped
in from the back, as shown in Fig. 10, and when this is the case the
work can be carried along without waiting for the window frames.

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

As distinguishable from the reveal frame, there is the =plank-frame
construction=, which is not built into the brickwork, but is built up
as shown in Fig. 11. When it is desirable to have the central mullion
_a_, Fig. 9, as narrow as possible, the box construction indicated
on the drawing is done away with and the window is hung by means of
overhead pulleys, the weights operating in the boxes at the sides.

STANDARD SLOW-BURNING CONSTRUCTION

=30.= A type of factory construction more usual than that previously
described is illustrated in Fig. 12. In this illustration, it will be
noticed that the main girders bear on wall pilasters, and the spandrel
filling between the pilasters is kept as thin as possible. The usual
reveal window frame is used, as shown at _a_, and the soffit of the
arch over the window openings is checked at the head of the opening to
provide a wind and water stop as at _b_. In this construction, which
is probably the best, though it does not possess the advantage of
giving the maximum amount of window space, and, consequently, light in
the building, a rowlock or bonded brick arch is used over the window
frames. By means of this construction, either the window frame may be
built in place, or the windows may be slipped in from the back against
a rabbet formed in the brickwork. The arch over the window head is
indicated at _c_.

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

[Illustration: FIG. 13]

=31. Floor Construction.=—The floor construction consists of
heavy timber girders, no dimension of which may be less than 6
inches, as otherwise it would not comply with the requirements of
slow-burning construction. The floor planking consists of 3- or 4-inch
tongued-and-grooved spruce, or yellow-pine planking, planed on the
under side, and thoroughly spiked to the girder. Planking of the
former thickness may be used for clear spans as great as 8 feet, while
the latter thickness may be used for up to 10-foot or even 12-foot
spans, if the loads are light. The girders are indicated at _d_, and
the floor planking at _e_. Usually the girders, in order to obtain the
requisite strength, are made of long-leaf yellow pine. On the top of
the spruce planking is placed a finished maple floor. This floor is
made from either 1-inch maple, which finishes as ⅞ inch, or 1¼-inch
maple, which finishes as 1⅛ inches, in thickness. Neponsett sheathing
paper, or deadening felt, is placed between the spruce planking and
the finished maple flooring for the purpose of preventing dust from
percolating through. This sheathing paper or felt is sometimes made
waterproof to prevent leakage due to water used for fire-extinguishing
purposes.

Frequently, the brickwork is corbeled out, as indicated at _f_, in
order to form a fire-stop between floors, or at least to prevent an
open joint at this place. Where the walls are offsetted, as shown in
Fig. 13, there is no need of corbeling out, for the offset in the
brickwork can be made to form the fire or dust stop.

=32.= Where heavy yellow-pine girders bear on brick walls, it is
usual to obtain the requisite bearing area by the use of cast-iron
bearing plates, as indicated in Fig. 14 (_a_), (_b_), and (_c_). In
(_a_) is shown an ordinary flat plate that has an area figured so that
the load on the brickwork will not exceed its ultimate stress, which
for brickwork laid in lime-and-cement mortar is about 150 pounds per
square inch, while for brickwork laid in cement mortar, it is in the
neighborhood of 200 pounds per square inch. This plate is usually cast
with a lug on the back, as at _a_, to be built in the brickwork, and
dowel-pins, or a lip, as at _b_, over which the girder is fitted,
or notched. By this means, a tie to the wall is obtained. There is
difficulty, however, in using such a connection, for the carpenters on
the job frequently miscut their beams, so that the notchings or borings
at _b_ do not come where they should, and to remedy the defect, the
notchings, or borings, are cut or gouged out, so that frequently the
pin or lip at _b_ is not brought to bear against the timber.

[Illustration: (_a_)]

[Illustration: (_b_)]

[Illustration: (_c_)

FIG. 14]

A more practicable bearing plate is illustrated in Fig. 14 (_b_). Here,
instead of providing dowels, or a lip, to set into the girder, the top
of the plate is cast with teeth, as indicated at _c_. While these teeth
tend to destroy fibers at the bottom of the beam, they nevertheless
sink into the timber, creating great friction, and thus accomplish a
tie to the wall fully as efficient as a dowel-pin, or lip, let into the
timber would be.

Probably the most common form of bearing plate is that illustrated
in Fig. 14 (_c_), which is known as the Goetz-Mitchell bearing box.
This is usually built flared, as indicated in the illustration, so
that when built into the brickwork it will have a hold in it, and the
timber acts as a tie by being notched over the lip, as at _d_ in this
figure. These Goetz-Mitchell boxes are generally provided with a plate
that sets on top of them, on which the brickwork may be built, and not
infrequently the sides of the boxes are grooved so that the ends of the
girders are ventilated.

[Illustration: FIG. 15]

=33. Window Heads.=—In Fig. 12 was shown a form of window head that
is the best for strength, but possesses the disadvantage of lowering
the top of the window, thus cutting off light to the room, which is a
serious objection where the room is wide, or where it depends on the
windows in one side for lighting the entire floor area. In order to
keep the window head up near the under side of the floor construction,
an =I= beam, lintel, or some similar form of support for the brickwork
over the head that takes up little room, must be employed. A
construction using shallow =I= beams is illustrated in Fig. 15. Here
the window head is directly beneath the rough flooring; and while
the outside face of the window is formed with an arch, the brickwork
above the window head is supported on shallow =I= beams. This figure
illustrates a section through the wall extending parallel with the main
girders, a bearing being obtained for the floor planking by bolting to
the =I= beams a bearing strap _a_.

This construction would not be permitted in some of the larger cities,
as the building laws require that all steel beams supporting brickwork
must be fireproofed. Consequently, a steel lintel of this construction
would have to be surrounded with concrete, and the window head dropped
somewhat to allow a bearing for the floor planking, or some other form
of construction adopted.

FACTORY BUILDINGS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

[Illustration: FIG. 16]

=34.= Within the last few years, the cost of the best Portland cement
has been so materially reduced that concrete has become an available
material for the construction of factories. Unless used in great
masses, however, it has not the strength to support the necessary
floor loads without the use of steel reinforcement. As explained in
_Design of Beams_, the fibers on the bottom of all beams subjected to
transverse stress are in tension, and while concrete has considerable
resistance to compression, it offers comparatively little to tensile
stress. It is therefore necessary to reinforce the lower portion of all
beams and floor slabs as indicated at _a_, Fig. 16.

=35. Advantages of Reinforced Concrete.=—In Fig. 16, the details of
a typical reinforced-concrete factory building are illustrated, and
a building of this character may be constructed for a cost of from
10 to 15 per cent. greater than the ordinary slow-burning type of
building. Besides, this construction possesses the advantage of being
practicable for long spans and heavy loads, whereas in buildings of
the slow-burning type, owing to the fact that the size of the wooden
beams is limited to the available commercial timber, it is frequently
impossible to design floors with girders of large spans for floor
loads of over 250 pounds per square foot. While this is a heavy load,
it is too light for some classes of work, such as occur in printing
houses and lithographing establishments where heavy stones are used and
stored. The floor loads in such buildings sometimes amount to as much
as 300 or 400 pounds per square foot, while it is not unusual to find
the load on floors in warehouses amounting to as much as 500 pounds per
square foot.

[Illustration: FIG. 17]

=36. Strength of Concrete Columns With Steel Cores.=—In the building
shown in Fig. 17, it will be noticed that the columns are reduced
in size in the lower floors, increased in the middle portion of the
building, and reduced toward the roof. The reduction in the columns
_a_ and _b_ is due to the fact that these columns are reinforced with
a steel core composed of structural shapes riveted together, angles
usually being employed for this purpose. In proportioning such columns,
it is good practice to figure on the ultimate safe unit compressive
stress of the steel without considering the reduction made by the usual
column formula, but to neglect, in the consideration of the strength
of the column, the resistance of the concrete surrounding the steel
core. To illustrate, if the sectional area of the steel reinforcements
in these columns equals 20 square inches, and a safe unit fiber stress
of 16,000 pounds is assumed, the safe strength of the column will be
320,000 pounds.

Above the second floor, the columns are made much larger, for here
there is less steel reinforcement, and it is necessary to figure on the
safe bearing strength of the concrete.

=37. Strength of Reinforced-Concrete Columns.=—In proportioning
reinforced-concrete columns, it is customary among conservative
engineers to figure the safe strength of the concrete-column section
at 500 pounds per square inch of section; that is, if the column is 20
inches square, its area is 400 square inches, and its safe strength at
500 pounds per square inch will be 200,000 pounds. In the top floor, it
is seldom advisable to use concrete columns less than 10 inches square,
though at this dimension they generally possess several times the
requisite amount of resistance.

All columns in reinforced construction generally have embedded in them
3¾-inch to 1-inch round steel rods, tied together with round iron
binders, or bar iron straps as indicated in Fig. 16 (_b_).

=38. Floor and Roof Construction.=—In considering the floor and roof
construction of buildings built of reinforced concrete, it will be
noted from Fig. 16 that the roof slab is made 3 inches in thickness.
Such a slab made of good concrete, reinforced with ⅜-inch steel rods,
spaced 6 inches from center to center, will carry the usual roof loads
for spans up to 7 feet in the clear.

In forming the gutter for such roofs, as indicated at _b_, the gusset
is made by filling in with cinder concrete. Usually cast-iron eave
boxes are embedded in the concrete, and these in turn connected with
inside rain conductors.

The beams supporting the roof, when the span is from 12 to 14 feet, are
made about 12 inches deep and 8 inches wide, while the girders, also
constructed of reinforced concrete, are usually made about 3 inches
deeper and 11 inches in width.

In order to make the roof impervious to moisture, a covering of felt
and slag is commonly employed. This slag joins the parapet wall with
the usual tin flashing and counter flashing, as at _c_, though copper
is recommended for best work.

In the floor construction of reinforced-concrete factory buildings,
the slabs forming the floor panels are made not less than 4 inches
in thickness, and seldom over 5 inches, with a 1-inch finish coat of
cement besides, if this character of finish is desired. Such a floor
slab is shown in the construction at _d_, Fig. 16, while the wooden
floor construction is shown in Fig. 16 (_c_). Here the structural
feature of the floor is a 4-inch concrete slab upon the top of which
is placed 2" × 3" beveled hemlock sleepers, the space between these
sleepers being filled with cinder concrete, and the floor finish
obtained by laying 1-inch tongued-and-grooved maple floorings.

=39. Reinforced-Concrete Beams and Girders.=—The depth of the beams and
girders in reinforced-concrete construction varies, of course, with
the span and loads to be supported. Their width enters little into
the strength, and they may be made as narrow as possible in order to
cover the reinforcing steel. It is the best practice to make beams and
girders of the same width, for then the process of forming the molds is
greatly simplified and the cost reduced.

In placing the reinforcement in the concrete, it should always be at
least 2 inches from the outside surface, for a distance less than this
is considered inadequate fireproofing. In order that the reinforcing
metal _e_, Fig. 16, may enter over the top of the reinforcing metal at
_f_, it is usual to make the secondary girders, or beams, 3 inches less
in depth than the main girders. To stiffen the building, brackets are
customarily introduced between the column and girders, as illustrated
at _g_. These brackets tend to greatly increase the rigidity of the
connection and shorten the span of the girder somewhat.

[Illustration: FIG. 18]

=40. Construction at Window Heads.=—Where it is necessary to have
the window head near the top of the ceiling, reinforced-concrete
construction lends itself readily to the requirements of this
condition, for even where girders are supported over the window head,
the construction may be followed out, as indicated at _h_, Fig. 16.
Where it is desired to have the window head raised still higher, a
construction similar to that shown in Fig. 18 may be used. In this
case, however, care must be taken to have the girders bear on the piers
between the windows, and to have no intermediate beams.

[Illustration: (_a_)]

[Illustration: (_b_)

FIG. 19]

=41. Column Footings.=—With factory buildings of more than five or
six stories in height, great pressure is transmitted to the soil from
the base of the bottom column, and as it is necessary with soils of
even fairly good bearing capacity to have footings beneath the piers
supporting columns of from 6 to 10 feet square, adequate means of
providing these footings must be obtained. In Fig. 19 (_a_) and (_b_)
are shown two types of footings for concrete columns. In (_a_) is
indicated a reinforced-concrete column with a steel core. In such an
instance, all the load is transmitted by the steel core through its
angle plates and webbing at the foot to grillage beams. These grillage
beams are, however, not made sufficiently large to transmit the load to
the soil, but merely to distribute the load on the bed of concrete. The
spread portion of the footing is reinforced with steel rods _a_, _a_
crossed each way, and longitudinal shear is taken up in the footing by
means of stirrups _b b_. This is the usual type of footing construction
under reinforced-concrete factory columns.

Where, however, the column is not reinforced with a steel core, but
is merely a pier, footings may be designed as illustrated in Fig. 19
(_b_). Here the base of the column is enlarged in order to better
distribute the load on the several steps of the footing, and where the
bottom step has a considerable overhang, it is reinforced with steel
rods and stirrups, as indicated.

=42. Detail of Slab and Girder Reinforcement.=—In the previous article,
the general construction of the floors and column supports of a factory
building was explained. By referring to Fig. 20, it will be shown how
the girders and beams are reinforced with the steel bars. In this
figure, a plan is indicated at (_a_) and an elevation at (_b_). The rod
reinforcement of the slab is shown in the plan at _a_, _a_. It will be
noticed that over every other beam these rod reinforcements lap, or
break joints, and that some additional tie or reinforcement is placed
over the girders, as indicated by _b_, _b_. These latter rods tend to
tie in the floor slabs still more rigidly than can be accomplished with
their individual reinforcement.

Referring to the elevation (_b_), it will be noticed that all the
reinforcement of the beams is not usually carried along the lower
portion of the girder for its entire distance, but that some of the
reinforcement is bent up at a point about one-quarter of the span
from the abutment, in the form of a camber rod. By arranging the
reinforcing rods in this manner, an additional stirrup action, or tie,
to the girder supports is provided, and the oblique section made by a
horizontal line passing through these rods tends to provide additional
resistance to the horizontal shear in the beams and also provide for
negative bending moment produced in the beams near the support. To
further provide for this, shear stirrups are placed closer together,
toward the abutments, as indicated at _c_, _c_. These stirrups are
ordinarily light pieces of bar iron bent in a =U=-shape, and sometimes
bent around the rod reinforcement, a detail of this stirrup being shown
in Fig. 20 (_c_).

[Illustration: FIG. 20]

STEEL-FRAME MILL BUILDINGS

=43.= There is a type of building which, while not distinctly mill
construction as usually understood, is frequently used for one-story
buildings, such as rolling mills, cement works, machine shops,
foundries, rail yards, and buildings of this class.

The essential feature of these buildings is a steel-roof truss
supported on steel columns, the columns being braced both to the truss
and longitudinally of the building. It is usually the purpose in the
design of such buildings to neglect everything but the necessary
stability and the first cost. The steelwork, consequently, is of the
lightest possible construction, usually designed for a unit fiber
stress of from 18,000 to 20,000 pounds, and the covering of the sides
of the building, together with window details, etc., is made only
sufficiently good to keep out the weather.

=44. Material for Roof Covering.=—The roof covering of this class of
building is either of slag on 2-inch spruce plank, spiked to nailing
strips bolted on to steel purlins from beneath, with lagscrews, or of
slate laid on 1-inch or 2-inch sheathing boards. Even galvanized iron
is used for the roofing of some of the cheapest class of buildings,
especially those which, owing to the process of manufacture, are
subjected to a high temperature.

=45. Construction of Sides of Building.=—The sides of these buildings
may be covered with either expanded-metal lath on metallic furring
strips, plastered inside and out with cement mortar so as to form
a fireproof and rigid screen wall about 2 inches in thickness; or,
the walls may be 9-inch or 13-inch brick walls built part way up the
height of the columns and leaving the columns exposed on the face;
or, corrugated galvanized iron lapped 6 inches and secured either by
riveting to metallic supports or nailed to wooden studding secured to
the steel frames. Of these constructions, probably the first is the
most expensive and also the most satisfactory.

[Illustration: FIG. 21]

=46. Partially Supported Steel-Frame Building.=— In Fig. 21, there is
designated a type of construction that may be built for about $1 per
square foot of the area covered. This consists of steel =I= beams, or
angle-and-plate columns, used for column supports carrying the usual
angle iron steel-roof truss. The roof is sheathed with 2-inch spruce
tongued-and-grooved planking, covered with a good quality of roofing
felt and slag, with a stop-gutter _a_ at the edge. Owing to the fact
that the steel columns are supported in a direction of their minimum
radius of gyration by means of the brick walls, they can be made very
light. The building illustrated has what is known as a _saw-tooth
roof_. By this means, light is obtained on the side next to an adjacent
and higher building by means of a sash _b_. This sash is usually made
hinged or pivoted, to provide the necessary ventilation.

=47.= In Fig. 22, there is illustrated, diagrammatically, the framework
of a one-story skeleton-construction building. In the design of all
such buildings, where there are no end gable walls, the several
columns and trusses must be braced diagonally, as indicated at _a_,
_a_, and frequently it is necessary to introduce a secondary system of
horizontal bracing from one panel point on the lower chord to another,
as indicated at _b_, _b_.

[Illustration: FIG. 22]

In placing galvanized ironwork on the sides of steel-mill buildings,
it is best to construct the necessary framework between the main
supporting members of the building of light angles, or tees. These
should be furnished punched with ⅜-inch or ⁵/₁₆-inch holes, to
which the galvanized iron may be riveted, it being best to mark the
galvanized iron in the field and punch it there. This may be done
without much difficulty with the usual light gauge used for this
purpose. It is sometimes necessary with this construction to flash
around the window and door heads with IX tin.

DETAILS OF MILL CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN

STRUCTURAL FEATURES

BEAM CONNECTION TO GIRDERS

=48.= In factory construction, the headroom is seldom available to
support beams on the girders, as indicated in Fig. 23 (_a_). It is
usually necessary, in order to cheapen the construction of mill
buildings, to keep the distance between the clear headroom and the
finished floor level to the very minimum, and consequently the tops of
the beams are most always brought flush, or nearly so, with the top of
the girder.

A common construction is to use some of the various forms of
wrought-iron hangers, as shown in Fig. 23 (_b_). The type of hanger
shown is a single stirrup, and is probably the best of any on the
market; where beams enter the girder on both sides, the hanger is
designed double. While it is popularly supposed that this hanger
would readily fail by the bending of the metal at _a_, it is usually
proportioned to safely carry any reaction imposed under ordinary floor
loads. This hanger is obtained stamped out of steel plate or formed
from bar iron.

[Illustration: (a)]

[Illustration: (b)]

[Illustration: (c)FIG. 23]

=49.= Where it is not desirable to use wrought-iron or steel hangers,
a simple and inexpensive form of construction may be adopted as that
shown in Fig. 23 (_c_). Here the beam _a_ is supported on a wooden
strip _b_, which extends the full length of the girder, and is bolted
near the bottom with through bolts. Such a construction provides
sufficient strength for the support of the average factory floor, but
its strength is difficult to figure with any degree of certainty, and
some surer form of connection is generally considered preferable.
In all instances, it is good practice to tie together the opposite
floor-beams butting on a girder by means of an iron dog, or tie-plate,
_c_.

=50.= In Fig. 24 (_a_), (_b_), (_c_), and (_d_) are indicated other
methods of supporting the secondary floor-beams on main girders in the
construction of factories. In Fig. 24 (_a_) is shown an =I=-beam girder
supporting heavy timbers of a floor of slow-burning construction. It
is always necessary in this construction to bring the top edge of the
timbers above the upper flange of the =I= beam, and to span the space
_a_ thus created with a piece of timber for a tie and for the support
of the floor planking. By providing this space between the ironwork and
the wooden tie, any shrinkage that may occur in the secondary timbers
will not cause the floor to ride on the top of the steel beam and thus
make a ridge evident in the finished floor at this place. The timbers
forming the secondary girders may either be supported on angle-iron
brackets, or on angle irons extending the entire length of the girder.
The latter method is only pursued when it is necessary to keep the end
of the timber a few inches away from the steel beam, and the angle,
consequently, being subjected to a greater bending moment, must have
more resistance by increasing the width of the section of the bracket.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: FIG. 24]

Sometimes, the secondary beams are supported on double stirrup hangers,
as shown in Fig. 24 (_b_). When it is not desired to use steel beams,
resort is frequently had to flitch-plate girders. They are, however,
held in some disfavor by the building departments of the several
cities, who do not consider that the combined strength of the timber
and metal can be taken, and will only permit the strength of either the
timber or metal to be used.

=51.= The building departments of several of the large cities
stipulate that buildings of the second class, which includes factory
construction, shall not have steel girders that are not fireproofed
supporting brick walls or floors. When this construction is required,
the secondaries must be supported as in Fig. 24 (_c_). In this view is
two angle brackets riveted or bolted to the steel beam, and extending
through the concrete for the support of the wooden beams. While there
is some danger of heat being transmitted to the beams through the
projecting ends of these brackets, nevertheless it is considered better
construction than that shown in Fig. 24 (_d_), where stirrups are used
over the concrete fireproofing. In this latter construction, there is a
liability of the stirrup bending at _a_, _a_, and crushing the concrete
beneath. Where the reaction from the end of the girder is great, this
undoubtedly is likely to occur, and such stirrups should be provided
with a bearing plate on top of the concrete, so that their bearing at
the edge will be distributed over a considerable area.

TRAVELING-CRANE LOADS

[Illustration: FIG. 25]

=52. Planning for Traveling Cranes.=—In designing factories or mill
buildings in which traveling cranes are to be installed, it is
important to observe that the track of the crane can be properly
supported, and also that there is sufficient headroom under the floor
or roof construction to permit the trolley of the crane and the
traveling mechanism of the crane girder to move underneath.

In Fig. 25, there is shown the upper portion of a steel-mill building.
The columns _a_ support the girder carrying the runway of the crane.
A convenient means of supporting the roof is to splice to this column
a similar column _b_, which is incorporated in the design of the roof
truss and rigidly braced with the truss by means of a knee brace
at _c_. In the design of such a building, it is very important to
determine the distances _x_ and _y_ required by the makers of the
traveling crane. These distances _x, y_ depend on the size of the
crane, that is, whether it is designed to carry 5, 10, 15, or more
tons. Usually from 9 to 12 inches is sufficient for the measurement
_x_, while the measurement _y_ varies from 5 to 8 feet.

=53. Cranes Supported on Reinforced-Concrete Walls.=—Frequently, in the
latest types of construction, the runway for the crane is supported
on reinforced-concrete walls, which construction is shown in Fig. 26
(_a_). It will be observed that the pilasters supporting the crane are
strongly reinforced in all directions from which stresses are likely to
be created from the eccentric load imposed by the crane track.

Where cranes are supported on reinforced-concrete columns, as in Fig.
26 (_b_), it would be good practice to put additional rods in the far
side of the column as at _a_, in order to supply a greater resistance
to bending, and thus counteract the effect of the eccentric load
produced by the reaction from the crane track. Where cranes handle
heavy rails or cumbersome material that might, by swinging, impose a
blow on the reinforced-concrete columns, it is good construction to
protect the edge of the columns with an angle iron as indicated at _b_.
This angle iron may be fastened in the forms and anchored by means of
pronged anchors back into the concrete when it is tamped.

[Illustration: FIG. 26]

[Illustration: FIG. 27]

=54. Detail of Track Construction.=—Many crane failures have been
due to the spreading of the track between supports. It is better,
therefore, to supply considerable lateral rigidity to the beam
supporting the track or traveling crane. Where loads are heavy and
plate girders are used for the runway tracks, the flanges of the girder
are sufficient for this purpose. Where =I= beams are used, however, for
the support of the crane track, it is good practice to place on the
top of them and rivet with countersunk rivets, spaced about 18 inches
apart on each flange, channel irons as indicated at _a_, Fig. 27. By
means of these channel irons, which are drilled with open holes _b b_,
the rail _c_ may be readily clamped in place by means of wrought-iron
clips and bolts, and the rails nicely aligned and adjusted by wedging
between these clips and the track.

=55. Maximum Stress on Track Girders.=—The principal calculation for
the construction of the runway of cranes exists in determining the
maximum bending moment. The maximum bending moment on a runway girder
occurs when the wheels of the traveling crane are in the position
indicated in Fig. 28. It will be noticed that the center of the girder
is midway between the center of the near wheel and the center of the
crane trolley, that is, the distance _a_ is one-half the distance _b_.
The following formula will give the maximum bending moment on a crane
girder when the load is in the position indicated in Fig. 28:

_w_(_l_ - _a_)²
_M_ = ---------------
2_l_

in which _M_ = bending moment, in inch-pounds;
_w_ = load on one wheel of crane, in pounds;
_l_ = span of girder from center to center of
support, in inches;
_a_ = distance, in inches, marked in Fig. 28.

[Illustration: FIG. 28]

In order to illustrate the application of this formula, assume that
the wheel load _w_ equals 10,000 pounds; that the distance from center
to center of supports of the runway girder is 15 feet, or 180 inches;
and that the distance _a_ is 12 inches. By substitution,

10,000 × (180-12)²
_M_ = ------------------ = 784,000 inch-pounds
2 × 180

From this bending moment may be found, by the methods given in _Design
of Beams_, the proper size girder to use.

THE POWER PLANT

BOILER ROOM

=56. Locating the Boiler Room.=—The ideal location for the boilers of
a factory or an industrial plant is in a separate building, which may
be denominated as the =power house=, and which may include as well, the
installation of the engines, dynamos, and other machinery necessary for
the generation of power and its transmission. More frequently, however,
the ground is not available for the erection of a separate building for
the power plant, and it becomes necessary to install the boilers and
engines in the factory itself. The location usually selected for these
vital features of the mill is the basement, and the arrangement of the
boilers and engines must be carefully considered in the designing of
this portion of the building.

=57.= In laying off the space to be occupied by the boilers, the
probable growth of the manufactory must be provided for by arranging
ample space for the installation of additional boilers.

It is best in arranging the boilers, to face them toward the available
coal supply, which is usually a coal bunker, vault, or bin, but in no
instance must the front of the boiler be nearer to a wall than the
length of the boiler tubes, unless special arrangements are made, for
this distance must be allowed in order to draw any defective or damaged
tubes and replace them with new ones. Also, by arranging the boilers
thus, the fireman has a minimum amount of carriage for the coal.

=58. Coal Storage.=—In designing the coal vaults, or coal storage,
their contents should be figured to allow for 1 or 2 weeks’ coal
supply, and as much more as is possible, to carry the plant over
periods of existing coal shortage due to strikes or interrupted traffic
from bad weather or other cause. In calculating the amount of space
required for coal storage, it is sufficient to multiply the number of
horsepower generated by the boilers by 4, which is the approximate
number of pounds of coal per hour for the generation of 1 horsepower.
This result, again multiplied by the number of hours for which the
boilers are run at their capacity, will give the quantity of coal
needed per day, in pounds. The weight per cubic foot of coal varies
from 80 pounds for soft coal to 90 pounds for hard coal, so that by
dividing the number of pounds by these quantities the cubic feet of
coal required per day is obtained. The bins may then be proportioned
for the number of days’ supply which the judgment of the designer may
assume as being necessary.

=59. Ash Disposal.=—Besides the consideration of the coal supply, some
disposition must be made of the ashes from the boilers. Frequently, a
bin is constructed of masonry, alongside of the coal supply, into which
the ashes are dumped by means of barrows. In large plants, this bin can
be emptied by means of an ash conveyor, or elevator, which will carry
the ashes to the level of the street or railroad track and thence into
a cart or car.

=60. Planning the Boiler Room.=—In locating the boilers in the boiler
room, which should be done in the plans of the building, for it is not
customary to cement the floor space covered by the boilers, and the
cost of the building is thus reduced, a passageway not under 3 feet,
and better 4 feet, should be left back of the boilers. This passageway
is required in order to have access to the clean-out doors and the
blow-off cocks. The ordinary horizontal return-tubular boiler, and
some water-tube boilers, can be constructed in a battery, with as many
boilers as may be desired in a row, especially when the passageway
is left back of the boilers. When setting other types of water-tube
boilers, space should be left between each battery of two, for in
these boilers, cast-iron doors are provided in the side walls for
blowing the soot from the tubes, and access must be had through the
side walls of the boiler for this purpose. It is therefore necessary in
laying out the boiler space for boilers of this character to provide
a passageway on one side of each boiler. In Fig. 29, a battery of
return-tubular boilers is indicated, showing the clean-out doors for
taking away the accumulation of soot and ashes that might be back of
the bridge wall, through a passageway at the rear of the boilers. Some
water-tube boilers are set in batteries of two, as the Babcock & Wilcox
water-tube, land-type boiler, which is provided with the necessary
clean-out doors, and doors for blowing the soot off the tubes in the
side wall.

[Illustration: _Front of Boilers_ FIG. 29]

It is therefore necessary in laying out the boiler room of a
manufacturing plant to consider carefully the character of the steam
generator and study its requirements, so that it may be successfully
operated and the proper spaces allotted.

[Illustration: FIG. 30]

=61. Doorway to Engine and Boiler Room.=—In the hasty design of
buildings, it is frequently found that the size of the doorways is not
sufficient to admit the boilers and machinery. This is a serious defect
in the planning of a manufacturing plant, as it requires either the
installation of the boilers and engines before the walls are entirely
built, or else the tearing out of brickwork and jambs in order to
accommodate them afterwards. An expedient for the enlargement of the
headroom of doorways and openings into the boiler and engine rooms that
are in the basement, is shown in Fig. 30. Here, if the lintel of the
doorway _a_ is kept below the floor level, where it would ordinarily
exist, the headroom of the doorway will be materially reduced, and
considerable difficulty will be encountered in taking any large piece
of machinery, or a boiler or steam drum, down the steps _b_. The
doorway is consequently increased in height by the introduction of the
bulkhead at _c_; while by this means the floor space above is slightly
reduced, yet use can frequently be found for the ledge or platform
frame at the top of the bulkhead, as at _d_.

=62. Floors Above Boilers.=—It is important in designing boiler rooms
in factories to have the floor construction over the top of the boiler
of incombustible material, and it is customary in the better class
of buildings to provide a section of fireproof floor over the top
of the boiler room. This floor construction may either be a brick
arch supported on steel beams, or hollow-tile construction, though
reinforced concrete is now finding favor in this purpose.

=63.= It is not altogether necessary that the boilers in a building
shall be placed in the basement, though as this is usually the least
valuable of the floor space it is the practice to so locate them. In
some electric-light stations, and in large factories, boilers have been
located on the first floor, and even in several instances on the fifth
and sixth floors. The exigencies that demand the latter installation,
however, must be great, for it can be readily seen that much power must
be expended in lifting the coal, etc. to the boiler room.

CHIMNEYS

=64. Dimensions and Capacity of Chimneys.= Nearly all the factory
buildings combine in their structure a power plant, not the least
important feature of which is the =chimney=. There are two things to
consider in the design of a power chimney—first, its capacity for
providing the necessary draft and the conduction of the requisite
volume of gases from the furnace or boiler, and second, its stability.
The first requirement regulates its diameter and height, and these
dimensions, together with its construction, determine also its
stability.

TABLE I

=====+===========================================================+====+======+======
| | |Effec-|
| Height of Chimneys and Commercial Horsepower Capacity |Side| tive |Actual
Diam-+---+---+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ of | Area | Area
eter |50 |60 |70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | 125 | 150 | 175 | 200 | Sq.|Square|Square
In. |Ft.|Ft.|Ft.| Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | Ft. | In.| Ft. | Ft.
-----+---+---+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+------+------
18 | 23| 25| 27| | | | | | | | | 16| .97| 1.77
21 | 35| 38| 41| | | | | | | | | 19| 1.47| 2.41
24 | 49| 54| 58| 62| | | | | | | | 22| 2.08| 3.14
27 | 65| 72| 78| 83| 87| | | | | | | 24| 2.78| 3.98
30 | 84| 92|100| 107| 113| 119| | | | | | 27| 3.58| 4.91
33 |105|115|125| 133| 141| 149| | | | | | 30| 4.48| 5.94
36 |128|141|152| 163| 173| 182| 191| | | | | 32| 5.47| 7.07
39 |154|168|183| 196| 208| 219| 229| | | | | 35| 6.57| 8.30
42 |182|200|216| 231| 245| 258| 271| 288| | | | 38| 7.76| 9.62
48 | |269|290| 311| 330| 348| 365| 389| | | | 43| 10.44| 12.57
54 | |348|376| 402| 427| 449| 472| 503| 551| | | 48| 13.51| 15.90
60 | |436|471| 503| 536| 565| 593| 632| 692| 748| | 54| 16.98| 19.64
66 | | |579| 620| 658| 694| 728| 776| 849| 918| 981| 59| 20.83| 23.76
72 | | |698| 746| 792| 835| 876| 934|1,023|1,105|1,181| 64| 25.08| 28.27
78 | | | | 885| 949| 990|1,038|1,107|1,212|1,310|1,400| 70| 29.73| 33.18
84 | | | |1,035|1,098|1,157|1,214|1,294|1,418|1,531|1,637| 75| 34.76| 38.48
90 | | | | |1,269|1,338|1,403|1,496|1,639|1,770|1,893| 80| 40.19| 44.18
96 | | | | | |1,532|1,606|1,712|1,876|2,027|2,167| 86| 46.01| 50.27
100 | | | | | | |1,760|1,865|2,043|2,197|2,359| 89| 50.11| 54.54
104 | | | | | | |1,899|2,024|2,218|2,395|2,560| 93| 54.39| 59.00
108 | | | | | | |2,051|2,190|2,399|2,591|2,770| 96| 58.83| 63.62
112 | | | | | | | |2,323|2,588|2,795|2,983| 100| 63.46| 68.42
118 | | | | | | | |2,632|2,883|3,114|3,339| 105| 70.71| 75.94
120 | | | | | | | |2,725|2,986|3,225|3,447| 107| 73.22| 78.54
124 | | | | | | | |2,915|3,193|3,449|3,687| 110| 78.31| 83.86
130 | | | | | | | |3,165|3,467|3,745|4,004| 116| 85.04| 90.76
136 | | | | | | | | |3,868|4,178|4,466| 121| 94.85|100.88
142 | | | | | | | | |4,305|4,567|4,886| 126|103.69|109.98
150 | | | | | | | | |4,719|5,097|5,448| 133|115.72|122.72
=====+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+====+======+======

Considering the first requirement, a circular flue is considered more
efficient than a square one, because its inside surface offers less
resistance to the passage of the gases, and there is not the likelihood
of eddies being formed. There is much difference of opinion among
engineers as to whether a stack should be narrower toward the top or
increased in size. The practice is to taper a stack toward the top,
this being done more on account of the necessity for increasing its
stability than because of the draft. Some stacks have been built,
however, with a larger inside diameter at the top than at the bottom,
with the idea of providing a greater sectional area for the passage of
the gases as their velocity is decreased. The capacity of the stack
for carrying off the products of combustion depends on the temperature
of the inside gases as compared with the temperature of the outside
air. The average temperature in stacks for power purposes ranges from
450° to 600° F., and, therefore, as there is little difference in the
travel of gases in flues between these temperatures, Table I can safely
be used in determining the diameter and height of stack for a given
capacity of power plant.

In Table I, it will be observed that the capacity of the stack is given
in horsepower, and in calculating this table it was considered that
5 pounds of coal were burned to develop 1 horsepower, this being a
high figure with the present economical systems of power generation.
Allowance has also been made, in this table, for the friction of the
gases against the side walls of the stack, it being considered that a
2-inch layer of dead air exists between the stack lining and the gases.

[Illustration: FIG. 31]

=65. Stability of Brick Chimneys.=—In considering the stability of
brick stacks, the overturning moment due to the wind must not exceed
the resisting moment of the stack to overturning about the base. For
instance, referring to Fig. 31, the pressure _p_ due to the wind acts
with the lever arm _x_ about the base of the stack, tending to overturn
it. The stack, or chimney, resists this overturning moment with its
weight _w_, acting through a lever arm _y_; if these two moments
are equal, the stack can be considered safe under the conditions
considered, though it is better to have some factor of safety, 2
usually being sufficient. An easy formula by which to determine whether
a stack is stable or not, is as follows:

_h_² × _dc_
_w_ = ------------
b

in which _w_ = weight of stack, in pounds;
_h_ = height of stack, in feet;
_d_ = mean diameter of stack, in feet;
_c_ = constant;
_b_ = width of base.

The constant _c_ varies with the shape of the stack. For a square
stack, when the wind is blowing at hurricane violence, 56 is used; for
an octagonal stack, 35; and for a round stack, 28.

To demonstrate this formula, consider a square chimney having an
average breadth of 8 feet and a width at base of 10 feet, the stack
being 100 feet high. The problem is, therefore, to find what the weight
of the stack must be in order to resist the greatest wind pressure
likely to occur. By substitution, in the formula,

100 × 100 × 8 × 56
_w_ = ------------------ = 448,000 pounds
10

With brickwork weighing about 120 pounds per cubic foot, the chimney in
question must therefore have an average thickness of somewhat more than
13 inches.

[Illustration: FIG. 32]

=66.= A good rule to follow in designing brick stacks is to make
the base at least one-tenth of the height. For stacks under 5 feet
in diameter, the walls for the first 25 feet from the top may be 8
inches, increased 4½ inches for each additional 25 feet from the top.
If the stack is more than 5 feet in diameter, the thickness at the top
should be 1½ bricks, or 12 inches, with a 4½-inch increase for each
25 feet. If the stack is less than 3 feet in diameter, the brickwork
for the first 10 feet from the top may be as little as 4½ inches; this
thickness, however, is not recommended, as the weather is likely to
penetrate such a thin wall, and sooner or later, together with the
exposure to the gases, destroy the brickwork.

=67. Construction of Brick Chimneys.=—All brick stacks must be provided
with a cast-iron or stone coping at the top, and it is usually well
to tie them in toward the base with good heavy stone band courses.
In constructing brick stacks, the brickwork should be laid up in
lime-and-cement mortar, and the bricks well covered and slid in place,
not just tapped or hit with the handle of a trowel.

All chimneys should also be provided, for a distance of at least
one-third of their height from the base, with a fire-brick lining, laid
up in fireclay, and at the bottom of this lining, where the flues from
the boiler enter the stack, cast-iron cleaning doors and frame should
be provided for removing soot that will accumulate and drop down. A
good example of a brick stack is given in Fig. 32; this stack has a
capacity of 500 horsepower, and is sufficiently stable to resist any
wind pressure.

FIRE-PROTECTION OF MILL BUILDINGS

SPRINKLER SYSTEM

=68. Sprinkler Tanks.=—In the large cities, where fire risks are great,
and where nearly all the buildings and their contents are protected
by insurance, the owners of the buildings are subjected to the rules
and regulations of the Underwriters, or Associations of Insurance
Companies. These Underwriters from time to time pass regulations
insisting on certain further precautions and protection against fire,
such as the installation of sprinkler systems, stand pipes for hose
attachment for each floor, etc.

As the available city pressure or water supply of the municipality may
be limited, or uncertain, or the pressure too low for a high building,
it is sometimes necessary to place water tanks of from 10,000 to 30,000
gallons capacity in towers on the roofs of factories, and in the design
of new factories provision is usually made for three tanks.

In designing a building, these tanks are located at such a point that
their support is insured by the walls beneath, and the most convenient
place is found to be over the stair tower or adjacent to it. As 1
gallon of water, together with the tank containing it, has a unit
weight of 8 pounds, a 30,000-gallon tank complete will weigh in the
neighborhood of 240,000 pounds, which must be supported on the walls
and by means of iron beams.

The architect, besides providing adequate support for these tanks,
must so design the tanks as to secure them against bursting, which
would lead to serious consequences. For durability, sprinkler or
fire-protection tanks are made of either cypress or cedar from 2 to
3 inches in thickness. They are usually in the shape of a truncated
cone, and the bottom of the tank is required to be at least 20 feet
above the highest point of the top story.

The important feature in the design of such tanks is to see that they
are properly braced with hoops, and it is usual to specify that no hoop
shall be subjected to a unit stress of more than 12,000 pounds for
iron and 16,000 pounds for steel. These hoops are made from ¾-inch to
1-inch round iron, not less than the former, and the required strength
is obtained by spacing them closer together at the bottom and farther
apart toward the top. They are held together with adjustable clamps,
as indicated in Fig. 33, and by the use of such clamps they may be
readily tightened. The bottom hoops of the tank are subjected to great
stress, and it is good practice for these hoops to bear against a flat
iron hoop, as indicated in Fig. 34. By this construction much greater
bearing is provided on the wood, and the round iron is prevented from
cutting into the staves of the tank. In some instances flat iron hoops
are used altogether, but it is considered better to use round iron
hoops, from the fact that they are not likely to corrode through as
rapidly as the thin flat iron.

[Illustration: FIG. 33]

[Illustration: FIG. 34]

=69. Proportioning the Hoops.=—The principal element of engineering
entering into the design of large wooden water tanks consists in the
proportioning of the hoops, and Table II will be found convenient in
determining the hoops required for any size of tank.

=70.= In order to determine the number of hoops of a certain size
required for any span of 12 inches at a point any distance from the
water-line, the following formula may be used:

5.16 _d H_
_N_ = ----------,
_S_

in which _N_ = number of hoops required in 1 foot
of height of tank;
_d_ = diameter of tank, in inches;
_H_ = height of water-line from center of space
under consideration, in feet;
_S_ = actual safe strength, in pounds, of hoops
assumed to be used.

This last value may be found from Table II.

TABLE II

SAFE STRENGTH OF ROUND TANK HOOPS
=========+=========+=============
Diameter | Steel | Wrought Iron
Inch | Pounds | Pounds
---------+---------+-------------
⅝ | 3,232 | 2,424
¾ | 4,832 | 3,624
⅞ | 6,720 | 5,040
1 | 8,800 | 6,600
=========+=========+=============

=71.= To illustrate the foregoing, assume that it is desired to find
what will be the spacing of ⅞-inch steel hoops at the bottom of a tank
12 feet in diameter, in which the water-line is 16 feet from the middle
of the section under consideration. Applying the formula in Art. =70=,
using in conjunction therewith Table II, it is found that

5.16 × 144 × 16
_N_ = --------------- = 1.77.
6,720

This result, 1.77, is the number of hoops required in 12 inches of
height from the bottom of the tank, and would indicate that the hoops
should be spaced about 7 inches from center to center, for 12 inches
divided by 1.77 gives approximately 7 inches, the pitch of the hoops.
This process should be repeated for different points throughout the
height of the tank, and from the results the tank may be designed.

=72.= In the installation of sprinkler tanks, it must be observed
that they are placed some distance above the highest point of the top
floor, the distance usually required by the Underwriters being 20 feet,
if it is possible of attainment. The tank should always be roofed,
have a ladder from the roof of the building to its top, and a steam
pipe inside to prevent the water from freezing in winter. This pipe
is furnished with a check-valve to prevent the water in the tank from
siphoning.

EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE
What should be the spacing of the ¾-inch round wrought-iron
hoops on a tank 10 feet in diameter and 12 feet high at a
distance of 6 feet from the water-line?
Ans. 12 in.

=73. Automatic Sprinkler System.=—The sprinkler system as now installed
for protection against fire in the interior of a building consists
essentially of piping connected to a gravity tank and extending over
the entire ceiling by means of mains and branches. There is located on
the ends of the branches automatic valves or stops, which are collapsed
or opened by the melting of a fuse or solder at a temperature more than
is likely to exist in the room at any time and still below that which
would be created by an incipient fire.

=74.= The underlying principles of automatic sprinkler systems as
stated by the Underwriters are as follows:

1. Buildings must be open in construction, free from concealed spaces,
or places where water thrown from sprinklers cannot penetrate.

2. Sprinklers to be so located that their distribution will cover all
parts of the premises.

3. Sprinkler piping to be of sufficient capacity and to have water
under pressure in same at all times, except in case of a system where
freezing is likely to occur, where an air lock is used.

4. An automatic supply of water of sufficient quantity and pressure
available at all times.

5. Systematic, thorough, and intelligent care and inspection of the
system.

=75. Fireproof Windows.=—It is frequently necessary, and in many cases
required by law, and especially recommended by the Underwriters, to
provide fireproof window frames and sash in walls exposed to great fire
risk, or where it is necessary to admit light into elevator shafts or
fire-towers. To meet this demand, several forms of metallic window
frames and sashes have been evolved, and these sashes when intended as
a fire-retarder are always glazed with wired glass.

=76. Wired Glass.=—The wire glass now in common use consists of heavy
glass plate with wire mesh embedded in it. This glass is obtainable
in polished, ribbed, prism, or mazed form, as shown in Fig. 35 (_a_),
(_b_), (_c_), and (_d_), respectively. The plain glass, Fig. 35 (_a_),
is used where the light is ample, and where it is desired for the
occupants to see through the windows. The ribbed is employed usually in
factories, and the ribs are generally run in a horizontal direction, so
as to throw the light toward the ceiling and floor, thus diffusing it
throughout the building. The prism glass is also employed in order to
secure a greater diffusion of the light than is possible with the plain
or factory ribbed glass, while the mazed glass finds favor where it is
necessary to employ an obscured sash, which will still admit plenty of
light and present a good appearance but yet cannot be seen through.

The glass used in metallic frames should not be less than ½ inch, or,
if polished, ⁵/₁₆-inch, and the embedded wire should not have a mesh
larger than 1 inch and should not be less in size than No. 22 Brown &
Sharpe wire gauge, which is the standard used in America.

[Illustration: FIG. 35]

[Illustration: FIG. 36]

=77. Design of Sash.=—In designing a sash for fire-retarder frames,
it is necessary, in order to comply with the Underwriters rules and
regulations, to observe that no single light exceeds 24 in. × 30 in.
The metallic frames are generally constructed of No. 22 galvanized
steel, while the sash are made of a lighter weight, generally No. 24.
In unusual localities, where the frames are likely to be subjected to
the influence of gases, with known affinity for iron or galvanizing, it
is permissible to make the metallic frames of 18-ounce copper, though
such frames are not considered the equivalent of an iron frame as a
fire-retarder, and such frames should never be used in elevator, vent
shafts, or fire-retarder partitions that are liable to intense internal
fires.

In order to better explain the construction of the commercial frames,
Fig. 36 is given, which illustrates one of the best frames in the
market. In the figure, a vertical cross-section through the window-head
sill and parting rail is illustrated. It will be observed that
these frames can be neatly framed with architrave mold and stop, as
designated at _a_ and _b_. It will also be observed that the head for
the top sash is beveled, as indicated at _c_, so that a tight joint
is insured by the edge of the sash coming in contact with the bevel,
and thus compelling a close connection. The parting rails are also
constructed with a straight piece entering on a bevel _d_, so that at
this point a tight joint is also secured. By the several offsets in the
sill, wind and rain stops are provided, as indicated at _e_. Sashes
constructed in this manner can be made to slide freely, noiselessly,
and be made tight against weather and wind, as well as being secured
against annoying clattering, or rattling. The sills of metallic frames
are generally filled with cement, and sometimes the heads are similarly
made solid. Any unusually large surfaces, like that which would occur
between twin or triple windows, in the mullion, are securely braced
inside with galvanized sheet iron or bar iron.

=78.= In the construction of metallic sash, solder is never used for
holding the parts together, for all parts must be either lock-seamed or
riveted, the lock seams being illustrated at _g_, Fig. 36. Soldering
may be used only to fill up the joints. The objection to a joint that
is only soldered and not lock-seamed is that in a severe fire when the
window is subjected to an intense heat, the joint is apt to open by the
solder melting out. When the joint opens, flames may go through and the
fire-stop will thus be soon destroyed.

In designing the frames, they should have at least a 4-inch lap on
the brick reveal on the sides and head, and it is not uncommon to
wind-stop the sill by extending upwards a piece of galvanized sheet
iron. While such windows as those described will act as a fire-retarder
and prevent flames from reaching apartments that they protect, even
in cases of severe conflagrations, nevertheless the glass radiates
considerable heat, and inflammable goods should not be stored too close
to such windows. Neither is it particularly desirable to have window
shades secured to the frames of metallic windows. Where the goods in a
building are particularly inflammable, the liability to pile them too
close to the sash should be entirely eliminated by using window guards,
which would maintain such merchandise at a distance of 3 or 4 feet from
the window.

=79. Fire-Doors and Frames.=—There is no more important feature in
the design of a mill building than the tin-lined fire-doors and their
attachment to the jambs. Every fault in their construction, as viewed
by the Underwriters, is likely to cost the owner additional insurance.

[Illustration: FIG. 37]

[Illustration: FIG. 38]

All tin-lined doors, when one door is used, should be made of three
thicknesses of tongued-and-grooved planking, laid up and down and
horizontally, and clinched-nailed, as illustrated in Fig. 37. The tin
lining on these doors must be of IC tin, put together with locked
seams, secretly nailed, and presenting the appearance designated in
Fig. 38.

=80.= The sills of openings covered with tin-lined doors must always
project under the door, so that there is no danger of burning through
the floor and thus communicating to the space protected by this
entrance. The several constructions of sills most commonly used are
illustrated in Fig. 39.

[Illustration: FIG. 39]

=81.= Sliding-doors should be hung with anti-friction adjustable
hangers. That is, the wheel of the hanger should have roller bearings
for the axle, and there should be some means of adjusting the height
of the door above the threshold by means of the hanger. The track for
sliding-doors should be placed on a slant toward the opening, so that
the door will automatically close. Where it is desired to have the
door open, it may be held back by means of a chord, fusible link, and
counterweight.

=82.= All folding doors should be heavily strap-hinged, and secured to
the jambs with iron-hanging stiles and hinge eyes with through bolts,
as shown at _a_, Fig. 40.

[Illustration: FIG. 40]

Care must always be taken that any through bolts that go through brick
walls near door openings, as the bolts shown at _a_, Fig. 40, be far
enough away from the jambs so that there will be no danger of the bolts
pulling through when put under strain. It is always better to build
these bolts in the wall as the work progresses than to drill holes and
put them in afterwards.

INDEX

NOTE.—In this volume, each Section is complete in itself and has a
number. This number is printed at the top of every page of the Section
in the headline opposite the page number, and to distinguish the
Section number from the page number, the Section number is preceded
by a section mark (§). In order to find a reference, glance along the
inside edges of the headlines until the desired Section number is
found, then along the page numbers of that Section until the desired
page is found. Thus, to find the reference “Anchors, Screw, §55, p16,”
turn to the Section marked §55, and then to page 16 of that Section.

A
Allowance for hardware, §55, p147
Anchors, Screw, §55, p16
Application of hardware, §55, p151
Arches, Cost of terra-cotta floor, §60, p35
Ash disposal in factories, §64, p42
Ashlar, §61, p6
and cut stone, Cost of, §60, p26
Cost of, §61, p6
or cut stone, Estimating cost of, §60, p28
Asylum and prison locks, §55, p64
Automatic sprinkler system in factories, §64, p53

B
Bank and safe locks, §55, p66
Barb nails, §55, p9
Barbed dowel-pin, §55, p10
Base plates, §64, p13
Baseboards, rails, and moldings, Cost of, §60, p67
Beams and girders, Concrete, §64, p26
and girders in mill construction, §64, p34
Blind and shutter hinges, §55, p38
Blocks, Cost of concrete building, §60, p23
Board measure, §60, p38
Boiler room in factories, §64, p41
-room planning in factories, §64, p41
Bolts and screws, §55, p11
Casement, §55, p93
Chain, §55, p110
Cremorne, §55, p95
Door, §55, p108
Espagnolette, §55, p96
Expansion, §55, p14
Bolts, Flush, §55, p11
Foot, §55, p110
Indicator, §55, p123
Shutter, §55, p130
Special, §55, p17
Transom, §55, p93
Brads, §55, p9
Flooring, §55, p9
Brass and bronze butts, §55, p9
and bronze door knobs, §55, p72
Brick, Common, §61, p9
Pressed, §61, p8
Table of labor prices per thousand, §60, p34
Brickwork, §60, p31
Calculating quantities for, §61, p8
Cost of, §60, p32
Cost of common, §61, p10
Cost of pressed, §61, p9
Estimating, §60, p33
Bridging, §61, p14
Bronze and brass door knobs, §55, p72
Builders’ hardware, §55, p1
Building blocks, Cost of concrete, §60, p23
Data on cost of reinforced-concrete, §60, p20
per cubic foot, Table of cost of, §60, p3
per square foot, Cost of framing and covering of, §60, p41
Summary of cost of, §61, p44
Butts and hinges, §55, p24

C
Cabinet hinges, §55, p132
locks, §55, p64, p136
Calculating number of studs, §60, p39
quantities for brickwork, §61, p8
quantities for carpentry work, §61, p10
quantities for excavations, §61, p2
quantities for gas-fitting, Estimating and, §61, p40
quantities for heating and ventilating system, Estimating and,
§61, p35
quantities for joinery, §61, p23
quantities for lathing and plastering, §61, p22
quantities for painting, Estimating and, §61, p42
quantities for plumbing system, Estimating and, §61, p37
quantities for roofing, §61, p21
quantities for stonework, §61, p4
quantities, Scope of subject of estimating and, §60, p1
quantity of nails required, §60, p45
sheathing or rough flooring, §60, p40
the volume of an excavation, §60, p16
Care and maintenance of locks, §55, p69
Carpenter, Work per day of, §60, p42
Carpentry, §60, p38
Cost of, §61, p21
Table of cost of miscellaneous items of, §60, p45
work, Calculating quantities for, §61, p10
Casement adjusters, §55, p99
bolts, §55, p94
Casing nails, §55, p9
Cast-iron door knobs, §55, p71
-iron hinge butts, §55, p27
-iron sash weights, §55, p18
Catches, Cupboard, §55, p133
Elbow, §55, p134
Ceiling, Cost of yellow-pine, §61, p20
Yellow-pine porch, §61, p20
Cellar excavations, §61, p2
floors, Cost of cement, §60, p23
stairs, §61, p30
Cement cellar floors, Cost of, §60, p23
Centers, Sash, §55, p88
Chain bolts, §55, p110
Door, §55, p107
fastener, §55, p107
Chains, Sash, §55, p81
Transom, §55, p93
Chimneys, Construction of brick, §64, p49
Factory, §64, p45
Stability of brick, §64, p47
Table of capacities of, §64, p46
Chipped glass, §55, p158
Classification of factory buildings, §64, p2
Clinch nails, §55, p10
Coal storage in factories, §64, p42
Column footings, §64, p28
Columns, Strength of concrete, §64, p24
Strength of reinforced-concrete, §64, p25
Combination locks, §55, p67
Concrete, Advantages of reinforced, §64, p24
beams and girders, §64, p26
building blocks, Cost of, §60, p23
buildings, Data of cost of reinforced-, §60, p20
columns, Strength of, §64, p24
factory buildings, §64, p23
footings, §64, p14
footings and floor, §61, p7
footings, Cost of, §61, p7
Table of cost of plain gravel, §60, p19
Table of cost of plain stone, §60, p19
walls supporting cranes, §64, p39
window heads, §64, p27
work, Plain, §60, p18
work, Reinforced-, §60, p18
Construction of brick chimneys, §64, p49
Slow-burning, §64, p18
Types of mill, §64, p13
Contractor’s method of figuring excavation, §60, p14
Corner and strap hinge plates, §55, p44
Cornice, spandrels, etc., Cost of, §61, p20
Cornices, Measuring of, §60, p41
Cost of ashlar, §61, p6
of ashlar or cut stone, §60, p26
of ashlar or cut stone, Estimating, §60, p28
of baseboards, rails, and moldings, §60, p67
of brickwork, §60, p32
of building, Summary of, §61, p44
of buildings per cubic foot, Table of, §60, p3
of carpentry, §61, p21
of cement cellar floors, §60, p23
of common brickwork, §61, p10
of concrete building blocks, §60, p23
of concrete footings, §61, p7
of cornice, spandrels, etc., §61, p20
of ditch work, Estimating the, §60, p15
of door frames and doors, §60, p65
of electric wiring, §61, p41
of excavation, §61, p4
of excavation, Actual, §60, p12
of flagstones and curbing, §60, p26
of flooring, §61, p19
of framing, §61, p17
of framing and covering of building per square foot, §60, p41
Cost of gas-fitting, Estimates and, §60, p72
of granite, §60, p29
of gravel roofs, §60, p54
of hardware, §61, p35
of heating and ventilating system, §61, p37
of joinery, §61, p33
of labor for gas-fitting, §61, p41
of labor for installing plumbing system, §61, p40
of lathing, Measurement and, §60, p60
of laying wooden floors, Table of labor and, §60, p44
of mackite, §60, p38
of miscellaneous interior joinery, §61, p32
of miscellaneous items of carpentry, Table of, §60, p45
of molding, §60, p62
of painting, §60, p75; §61, p43
of paneling and wainscoting, §60, p67
of plain gravel concrete, Table of, §60, p19
of plain stone concrete, Table of, §60, p19
of plastering, §60, p59; §61, p23
of plumbing, Approximate, §60, p70
of plumbing system, §61, p40
of pressed brickwork, §61, p9
of reinforced-concrete floor slabs, Table of, §60, p22
of roof tiling per square, Table of approximate, §60, p53
of roofing, §61, p22
of rubble masonry, §60, p25; §61, p5
of sheathing and shingles, §61, p18
of slating per square, §61, p21
of slating per square, Table of approximate, §60, p51
of soft stone, §60, p28
of stairs, §60, p67; §61, p31
of structural steel, §60, p69
of terra-cotta floor arches, §60, p35
of terra-cotta partitions, Table of, §60, p36
of tiling, §60, p37
of verandas, §60, p68
of window frames and windows, §60, p63
of yellow-pine ceiling, §61, p20
Covering, Kinds of roof, §60, p46
of building per square foot, Cost of framing and, §60, p41
Cranes on concrete walls, §64, p39
Planning for traveling, §64, p37
Cranes, Track construction for traveling, §64, p39
Cremorne bolts, §55, p95
Cubic foot, Table of cost of buildings per, §60, p3
Cupboard buttons, §55, p134
catches, §55, p133
latches, §55, p132
Curbing, Cost of flagstones and, §60, p26
Cut nails, §55, p2
nails, Table of sizes of, §55, p6
stone, §61, p6
stone, Cost of ashlar and, §60, p26

D
Designs of hardware, Stock and commercial, §55, p22
Dimension stone, §60, p24
Dimensions of factory chimneys, §64, p45
Ditch work, Estimating the cost of, §60, p15
Door bolts, §55, p108
chains, §55, p107
checks, §55, p111
frames and doors, Cost of, §60, p65
frames, Attic, §61, p24
frames, First-floor, §61, p24
frames, Second-floor, §61, p24
hangers, §55, p114
holders, §55, p105
knobs, §55, p70
knobs, Brass and bronze, §55, p72
knobs, Cast-iron, §55, p71
knobs, Sizes and styles of, §55, p73
knobs, Spun-metal, §55, p73
knobs, Stamped, §55, p72
knobs, Wooden, §55, p71
knockers, §55, p121
Korelock, §60, p66
locks, Interior, §55, p50
pulls, §55, p102
-screen latches, §55, p124
springs, §55, p111
stops, §55, p105
trims for water closets, §55, p123
Doors, Attic, §61, p26
Cost of door frames and, §60, p65
Elevator, in factories, §64, p8
Fireproof, §64, p57
First-floor, §61, p25
Second-floor, §61, p26
Double-acting hinges, §55, p33
-door locks, §55, p57
Dowel-pin, Barbed, §55, p10
Drainage system, §61, p39
Drainage system, Estimates for, §60, p70
Drawer pulls, §55, p135
Drive screws, §55, p13

E
Elbow catches, §55, p134
Electric wiring, Cost of, §61, p41
Elevator doors in factories, §64, p8
Freight, in factories, §64, p8
latches, §55, p124
Location of, in factories, §64, p8
-shaft windows, §64, p10
shafts in factories, §64, p8
Escutcheons, §55, p136
Espagnolette bolts, §55, p96
Estimate, Important factors of, §60, p2
Estimates and cost of gas-fitting, §60, p72
for drainage system, §60, p70
for water-supply system, §60, p71
of well supply of water, §60, p71
on plumbing fixtures, §60, p72
Estimating and calculating quantities for gas-fitting, §61, p40
and calculating quantities for heating and ventilating system,
§61, p35
and calculating quantities for painting, §61, p42
and calculating quantities for plumbing system, §61, p37
and calculating quantities, Scope of subject of, §61, p1
Approximate, §60, p3
brickwork, §60, p6, p33
carpentry, §60, p6
concrete work, §60, p5
cost of ashlar or cut stone, §60, p28
cost of ditch work, §60, p15
Example in, §61, p1
Glazing, §60, p11
Heating and ventilating system, §60, p8
Joinery, §60, p7
of hardware, §55, pl48; §60, p8
of matched flooring, §60, p40
on excavation, §60, p5, p11
on glazing, §60, p78
on papering, §60, p77
Outline of the work of, §60, p4
Painting and papering, §60, p10
Plastering, §60, p7
Plumbing and gas-fitting, §60, p9
Principles of, §60, p3
roofing, §60, p7
schedule, Accurate, §60, p5
schedule, Items of, §60, p5
sheet-metal roofs, §60, p51
Estimating shingles, Table of data for, §60, p48
stone work, §60, p5
stucco work, §60, p58
Estimator, Qualifications of, §60, p2
Excavation, Actual cost of, §60, p12
Calculating the volume of an, §60, p16
Cellar, §61, p2
Contractor’s method of figuring, §60, p14
Estimating on, §60, p11
for wall footings, §61, p3
Excavations, Calculating quantities for, §61, p2
Cost of, §61, p4
Miscellaneous, §61, p3
Expansion bolts, §55, p14
Exterior joinery, Miscellaneous, §61, p32
painting work, §61, p42

F
Factories, Ash disposal in, §64, p42
Automatic sprinklers in, §64, p53
Boiler room in, §64, p41
Boiler-room planning in, §64, p42
Coal storage in, §64, p42
Fire-protection in, §64, p50
Floors above boilers in, §64, p45
Power plant in, §64, p41
Sprinkler tanks in, §64, p50
Sprinkling system in, §64, p50
Factory buildings, Concrete, §64, p23
chimneys, Dimensions of, §64, p45
elevators, Location of, §64, p8
planning, §64, p3
Fence nails, §55, p10
Figured rolled glass, §55, p159
Filing, §61, p4
Finishes, Hardware, §55, p23
Finishing hardware, §55, p20
nails, §55, p8
Fire-doors, §64, p57
-protection in factory and mill buildings, §64, p50
-tower, Location of, §64, p8
-tower stairway, §64, p4
-towers, Number of, §64, p7
Fittings, Pipe and, §61, p41
Fixtures, Estimates on plumbing, §60, p72
Gas, §61, p40
Plumbing, §61, p37
Flagstones and curbing, Cost of, §60, p26
Fireproof windows, §64, p54
Floor arches, Cost of terra-cotta, §60, p35
Concrete footings and, §61, p7
construction, §64, p14
construction, Slow-burning, §64, p18
Floor framing, Attic, §61, p13
framing, Back-porch, §61, p14
framing, First-story, §61, p11
framing, Front-porch, §61, p13
framing, Second-story, §61, p12
glass, §55, p160
hinges, §55, p35
slabs, Table of cost of reinforced-concrete, §60, p22
Flooring, §61, p19
Calculating sheathing or rough, §60, p40
Cost of, §61, p19
Estimating matched, §60, p40
Rift-sawed, yellow-pine-finish, §61, p19
Yellow-pine porch, §61, p19
Floors, Cost of cement cellar, §60, p23
Table of labor cost of laying wooden, §60, p44
Flush bolts, §55, p111
Footings, §64, p14
and floor, Concrete, §61, p7
Cost of concrete, §61, p7
Excavation for wall, §61, p3
for factory columns, §64, p28
Foundation piers in factories, §64, p16
walls in factories, §64, p16
Frames and doors, Cost of door, §60, p65
and windows, Cost of window, §60, p63
Attic door, §61, p24
Attic window, §61, p28
Cellar window, §61, p26
First-floor door, §61, p24
First-floor window, §61, p27
for porch, Screen, §61, p30
Second-floor door, §61, p24
Second-floor window, §61, p27
Framing and covering of building per square foot, Cost of, §60, p41
Attic floor, §61, p13
Back-porch floor, §61, p14
Cost of, §61, p17
First-story floor, §61, p11
Front-porch floor, §61, p13
Main-roof, §61, p14
Porch-roof, §61, p16
Second-story floor, §61, p12
Freight elevators, §64, p9
Front-door locks, §55, p56
Furnace, §61, p35

G
Galvanized nails and spikes, §55, p11
Gas-fitting, Cost of labor for, §61, p41
-fitting, Estimates and cost of, §60, p72
-fitting, Estimating and calculating quantities for, §61, p40
Gas fixtures, §61, p40
Gate latches, §55, p125
Gauge, Screw maker’s, §55, p13
Wire, §55, p4
Girders and beams, Concrete, §64, p26
and beams in mill construction, §64, p34
Glass, §55, p157
Chipped, §55, p158
Figured, §55, p159
Floor, §55, p160
Ground, §55, p157
knobs, §55, p72
per box, Table of panes of window, §60, p69
Plate, §55, p160
Prismatic, §55, p162
Skylight, §55, p160
Wire, §55, p161
Glazier’s point, §55, p165
Glazing, Estimating on, §60, p78
Granite, Cost of, §60, p29
Gravel concrete, Table of cost of plain, §60, p19
roofs, Cost of, §60, p54
Gravity-locking hinge, §55, p39
Ground glass, §55, p157

H
Hardware, §61, p33
Allowance for, §55, p147
Application of, §55, p151
Builders’, §55, p1
Commercial and stock designs of, §55, p22
Cost of, §61, p35
Emblematic, §55, p139
Estimating on, §55, p148
Finished, §55, p23
Finishing, §55, p20
Historic styles of, §55, p23
Metals used in, §55, p22
Miscellaneous, §61, p34
Proprietary, §55, p138
schedules, §55, p154
Selection of, §55, p146
specifications, §55, p142
Staple, §55, p1
Window-sash, §55, p77
Hardwood, Staining, §60, p76
Heating and ventilating system, Estimating of, §60, p69
and ventilating system, Estimating and calculating
quantities for, §61, p35
High-grade locks, §55, p49
Hinge butts, §55, p26
butts, Cast-iron, §55, p27
Hinge butts, Sizes of, §55, p30
butts, Steel, §55, p28
Gravity-locking, §55, p39
plates, Strap and corner, §55, p44
Hinges, §61, p34
and butts, §55, p24
Brass and bronze, §55, p29
Cabinet, §55, p132
Double-acting, §55, p33
Floor, §55, p35
Invisible, §55, p41
Shutter and blind, §55, p38
Single-acting, §55, p31
Strap, §55, p24
History of metals, §55, p20
Hotel and office locks, §55, p58
key tags, §55, p76

I
Implied contract, §61, p4
Indicator bolts, §55, p123
Interior door locks, §55, p50
joinery, Cost of miscellaneous, §61, p32
joinery, Miscellaneous, §61, p31
painting work, §61, p42
Invisible hinges, §55, p41

J
Joinery, Baseboard and beam casings, §60, p61
Blinds, §60, p61
Calculating quantities for, §61, p23
Cost of, §61, p33
Cost of miscellaneous interior, §61, p32
Doors, §60, p61
Frames, §60, p61
Inside fixtures, §60, p62
Miscellaneous interior, §61, p31
Porches, §60, p62
Sash, §60, p61
Stairways, §60, p62
Wainscoting, §60, p61

K
Key tags, §55, p76
Kick plates, §55, p102
Knobs, Glass, §55, p72
Knockers, Door, §55, p121
Korelock door, §60, p66

L
Label plates, §55, p138
Labor cost of laying wooden floors, Table of, §60, p44
for gas-fitting, Cost of, §61, p41
for installing plumbing system, Cost of, §61, p40
Labor prices per thousand brick, Table of, §60, p34
Latches, Cupboard, §55, p132
Elevator, §55, p124
Gate, §55, p125
Screen-door, §55, p124
Lath nails, §55, p9
Lathing and plastering, Calculating quantities for, §61, p22
Measurement and cost of, §60, p60
Laying wooden floors, Table of labor cost of, §60, p44
Lead sash weights, §55, p18
Locks, §55, p44; §61, p34
Bank and safe, §55, p66
Cabinet, §55, p64, p136
Care and maintenance of, §55, p69
Combination, §55, p67
Double-door, §55, p57
for residence, §55, p56
Front-door, §55, p56
High-grade, §55, p49
Interior door, §55, p5O
Master-key, §55, p51
Mortise, §55, p45
Office and hotel, §55, p58
Prison and asylum, §55, p64
Lumber, Prices of, §60, p39

M
Mackite, Cost of, §60, p38
Manipulation of metals, §55, p20
Masonry, Cost of rubble, §60, p25; §61, p5
Rubble, §61, p4
Stone, §60, p24
Master-key locks, §55, p51
-key lock, Yale, §55, p52
Measure, Board, §60, p38
Measurement and cost of lathing, §60, p60
of painting, §60, p72
of plastering, §60, p58
Measuring cornices, §60, p41
for slating, §60, p49
shingle roofing, §60, p46
weather boarding or siding, §60, p41
Mensuration, Roof, §60, p54
Metals, History of, §55, p20
Manipulation of, §55, p20
used in hardware, §55, p22
Mill buildings, Fire-protection in, §64, p50
buildings, Steel-frame, §64, p31
construction, Beams and girders in, §64, p34
construction, Types of, §64, p13
design, §64, p1
Molding, Cost of, §60, p62
Moldings, Cost of baseboards, rails, and, §60, p67
Mortise locks, §55, p45

N
Nail sizes, Table of, §55, p6
Nails, §55, p2
and spikes, Galvanized, §55, p11
and studs, Ornamental, §55, p125
Barb, §55, p9
Casing, §55, p9
Clinch, §55, p10
Fence, §55, p10
Finishing, §55, p8
Lath, §55, p9
required, Calculating the quantity of, §60, p45
required for various purposes, Table of quantity of, §60, p46
Roofing, §55, p9
Shingle, §55, p9
Size of, §55, p3
Slating, §55, p9
used in tin roofing, §55, p45

O
Office and hotel locks, §55, p58
Ornamental nails and studs, §55, p125

P
Padlocks, §55, p61
Paint required, Quantities of, §60, p73
Painting, Care in, §60, p74
Cost of, §60, p75; §61, p43
Estimating and calculating quantities for, §61, p42
materials, Table of quantities of, §60, p74
Measurement of, §60, p72
work, Exterior, §61, p42
work, Interior, §61, p42
Paneling and wainscoting, Cost of, §60, p67
Paper, Estimating on, §60, p77
Partition studding, §61, p17
Pipe and fittings, §61, p41
Pipes, Warm-air and smoke, §61, p35
Planning factories, §64, p3
for traveling cranes, §64, p37
Plastering, Calculating quantities for lathing and, §61, p22
Cost of, §60, p59; §61, p23
Measurement of, §60, p58
Three-coat, §61, p22
Two-coat, §61, p22
Plate glass, §55, p160
Plates, Kick, §55, p102
Plates, Push, §55, p104
Sign, §55, p105
Plumbing, Approximate cost of, §60, p70
fixtures, §61, p37
fixtures, Estimates on, §60, p72
system, Cost of, §61, p40
system, Cost of labor for installing, §61, p40
system, Estimating and calculating quantities for, §61, p37
Porch ceiling, Yellow-pine, §61, p20
Screen frames for, §61, p30
Post caps, §64, p13
Power plant in factories, §64, p41
Prices of lumber, §60, p39
per thousand brick, Table of, §60, p34
Prismatic glass, §55, p162
Prison and asylum locks, §55, p64
Proprietary hardware, §55, p138
Pulley, Sash, §55, p77
Push plates, §55, p104
Putty, §55, p165

Q
Quantities for brickwork, Calculating, §61, p8
for carpentry work, Calculating, §61, p10
for excavations, Calculating, §61, p2
for gas-fitting, Estimating and calculating, §61, p40
for heating and ventilating system, Estimating and calculating,
§61, p35
for joinery, Calculating, §61, p23
for lathing and plastering, Calculating, §61, p22
for painting, Estimating and calculating, §61, p42
for plumbing system, Estimating and calculating, §61, p37
for roofing, Calculating, §61, p21
for stonework, Calculating, §61, p4
of building materials put in place per day by one man,
Table of, §60, p43
of paint required, §60, p73
of painting material, Table of, §60, p74
Scope of subject of estimating and calculating, §60, p1
Quantity of nails for various purposes, Table of, §60, p46
of nails required, Calculating, §60, p45

R
Rails, and moldings, Cost of baseboards, §60, p67
Register boxes, Tin, §61, p36
Registers, §61, p36
Reinforced concrete, Advantages of, §64, p24
-concrete buildings, Data on cost of, §60, p20
-concrete columns, Strength of, §64, p25
-concrete floor slabs, Table of cost of, §60, p22
-concrete work, §60, p18
Residences, Locks for, §55, p56
Reversible locks, §55, p125
Roof construction, Slow-burning, §64, p18
covering, Kinds of, §60, p46
framing, Main, §61, p14
framing, Porch, §61, p16
mensuration, §60, p54
tiling per square, Table of approximate cost of, §60, p53
Roofing, Calculating quantities for, §61, p21
Cost of, §61, p22
items, Miscellaneous, §61, p21
materials for steel-frame mills, §64, p31
Measuring of shingle, §60, p46
nails, §55, p9
Roofs, Cost of gravel, §60, p54
Estimating sheet-metal, §60, p51
Tile, §60, p53
Rubble, §60, p24
masonry, §61, p4
masonry, Cost of, §60, p25; §61, p5

S
Safe and bank locks, §55, p66
-deposit locks, §55, p63
Sash, Attic window, §61, p29
balances, §55, p82
Cellar window, §61, p28
centers, §55, p88
chains, §55, p81
cord, Table of, §55, p81
cords, §55, p81
fasts, §55, p83
First-floor window, §61, p28
lifts, §55, p85
locks, §55, p83
-operating devices, §55, p100
pole hooks, §55, p86
pulley, §55, p77
Second-floor window, §61, p29
sockets, §55, p86
stop-screws, §55, p87
weights, §55, p18
weights, Sectional, §55, p19
Sawed shingles, §60, p48
Schedule, Accurate estimating, §60, p5
Screen frames for porch, §61, p30
-door latches, §55, p124
Screw anchors, §55, p16
makers’ gauge, §55, p13
sizes, Table of, §55, p13
Screws and bolts, §55, p11
Drive, §55, p13
Sash stop-, §55, p87
Wood, §55, p11
Sectional sash weights, §55, p19
Selection of hardware, §55, p146
Shafts, Elevator, in factories, §64, p8
Shaved shingles, §60, p47
Sheathing, §61, p18
and shingles, Cost of, §61, p18
or rough flooring, Calculating of, §60, p40
Sheet-metal roofs, Estimating of, §60, p51
Shingle nails, §55, p9
roofing, Measuring, §60, p46
Shingles, §61, p18
Classification of, §60, p47
Cost of sheathing and, §61, p18
Sawed, §60, p48
Shaved, §60, p47
Table of data for estimating, §60, p48
Shutter and blind hinges, §55, p38
bolts, §55, p130
fasteners, §55, p129
Siding, Measuring weather boarding or, §60, p41
Sign plates, §55, p105
Single-acting hinges, §55, p31
Sizes of hinge butts, §55, p30
of wire nails, §55, p7
Skylight glass, §55, p160
Slates per square, Table of number of, §60, p50
Slating, §61, p21
Measuring for, §60, p49
nails, §55, p9
per square, Table of approximate cost of, §60, p51
Sliding-door hangers, §55, p114
Slow-burning construction, §64, p18
-burning floor construction, §64, p18
-burning roof construction, §64, p25
Smoke pipes, Warm-air and, §61, p35
Socket, Sash, §55, p86
Soft stone, Cost of, §60, p28
Spandrels, etc., Cost of cornice, §61, p20
Special bolts, §55, p17
wire nails, §55, p8
Spikes and nails, Galvanized, §55, p11
Splice pieces in mill construction, §64, p15
Sprinkler system in factories, §64, p50
tanks, §64, p50
Spun-metal door knobs, §55, p72
Stability of brick chimneys, §64, p47
Stair towers in factories, §64, p4
Stairway in fire tower, §64, p6
Stairs, Back, §61, p30
Cellar, §61, p30
Cost of, §60, p67
Main, §61, p30
Stamped door knobs, §55, p72
Standard wire gauge, §55, p4
Staple hardware, §55, p1
Steel-frame mill building, §64, p31
-frame mills, Roofing material for, §64, p31
hinge butts, §55, p28
Stock and commercial designs of hardware, §55, p22
Stone concrete, Table of cost of plain, §60, p19
Cost of ashlar and cut, §60, p26
Cost of soft, §60, p28
Cut, §61, p6
Dimension, §60, p24
Estimating the cost of ashlar or cut, §60, p28
masonry, §60, p24
Stonework, Calculating quantities for, §61, p4
Store-door locks, §55, p61
Strap and corner hinge plates, §55, p44
hinges, §55, p24
Strength of concrete columns, §64, p24
of reinforced-concrete columns, §64, p25
Structural steel, Cost of, §60, p69
Stucco work, Estimating, §60, p58
Studding, Partition, §61, p17
Wall, §61, p16
Studs and nails, Ornamental, §55, p125
Calculating number of, §60, p39
Styles and sizes of door knobs, §55, p73
Subtreasury locks, §55, p69

T
=T= hinges, §55, p25
Table of approximate cost of roof tiling per square, §60, p53
of approximate cost of slating per square, §60, p51
of cost of building per cubic foot, §60, p3
of cost of miscellaneous items of carpentry, §60, p45
Table of cost of plain gravel concrete, §60, p19
of cost of plain stone concrete, §60, p19
of cost of reinforced-concrete floor slabs, §60, p22
of cost of terra-cotta partitions, §60, p36
of cut-nail sizes, §55, p6
of data for estimating shingles, §60, p48
of height of chimneys, §64, p46
of labor cost of laying wooden floors, §60, p44
of labor prices per thousand brick, §60, p34
of number of slates per square, §60, p50
of panes of window glass per box, §60, p69
of quantities of material put in place per day by one man, §60, p43
of quantities of painting materials, §60, p74
of quantity of nails required for various purposes, §60, p46
of sash cord, §55, p81
of sash weights, §55, p19
of standard wire gauge, §55, p4
of wood screw sizes, §55, p13
Terra-cotta floor arches, Cost of, §60, p35
-cotta partitions, Table of cost of, §60, p36
-cotta window heads in factories, §64, p16
Tiling, Cost of, §60, p37
per square, Table of approximate cost of roof, §60, p53
Time locks, §55, p67
Toggle bolt, §55, p17
Toilet-room fixtures, §64, p12
-room partitions, §64, p11
rooms, Location of, §64, p10
Track construction for traveling cranes, §64, p39
Transom bolts, §55, p93
catches, §55, p93
chains, §55, p93
lifts, §55, p91
Traveling cranes, Planning for, §64, p37
cranes, Track construction for, §64, p39
Turnbuckles, §55, p131
Types of mill construction, §64, p13

U
Underflooring, Hemlock, §61, p19
Unit-cylinder locks, §55, p49

V
Vault lights, §55, p163
Ventilating system,
Estimating and calculating quantities for heating and, §61, p35
system, Estimating heating and, §60, p69
Verandas, Cost of, §60, p68
Volume of an excavation, Calculating the, §60, p16

W
Wainscoting, Cost of paneling and, §60, p67
Wall footings, Excavation for, §61, p3
foundations for factories, §64, p16
studding, §61, p16
Warm-air and smoke pipes, §61, p35
Water-closet door trims, §55, p123
Estimates for well supply of, §60, p71
supply, §61, p38
-supply system, Estimates for, §60, p71
Waterproofing, §64, p15
Weather boarding or siding, Measuring of, §60, p41
Well supply of water, Estimates for, §60, p71
Window, Elevator shaft, §64, p10
Fireproof, §64, p54
frames and windows, Cost of, §60, p63
frames, Attic, §61, p28
frames, Cellar, §61, p26
Window frames, First-floor, §61, p27
frames, Second-floor, §61, p27
glass per box, Table of number of panes of, §60, p69
heads, Concrete, §64, p27
heads in slow-burning construction, §64, p22
heads, Terra-cotta, in factories, §64, p16
openings in factories, §64, p17
sash, Attic, §61, p29
sash, Cellar, §61, p28
sash, First-floor, §61, p28
-sash hardware, §55, p77
sash, Second-floor, §61, p29
Windows, Cost of window frames and, §60, p63
Wire brads, §55, p9
gauge, §55, p4
glass, §55, p161; §64, p54
nails, §55, p2
nails, Special, §55, p8
nails, Table of sizes of, §55, p7
Wiring, Cost of electric, §61, p41
Wood screws, §55, p11
screws, Table of sizes of, §55, p13
Wooden door knobs, §55, p71
floors, Table of labor cost of laying, §60, p44

Y
Yale master-key lock, §55, p52

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "International Library of Technology, v. 333: Hardware, Estimating, and Mill Design" ***

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