Title: Myths and Legends of China
Author: Werner, E. T. C. (Edward Theodore Chalmers), 1864-1954
Language: English
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                        Myths & Legends of China

                                   By

                             E.T.C. Werner

  H.B.M. Consul Foochow (Retired) Barrister-at-law Middle Temple Late
    Member of The Chinese Government Historiographical Bureau Peking
 Author of "Descriptive Sociology: Chinese" "China of the Chinese" Etc.


                      George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd.
                          London Bombay Sydney



In Memoriam

_Gladys Nina Chalmers Werner_



Preface

The chief literary sources of Chinese myths are the _Li tai shên hsien
t'ung chien_, in thirty-two volumes, the _Shên hsien lieh chuan_,
in eight volumes, the _Fêng shên yen i_, in eight volumes, and the
_Sou shên chi_, in ten volumes. In writing the following pages I
have translated or paraphrased largely from these works. I have also
consulted and at times quoted from the excellent volumes on Chinese
Superstitions by Père Henri Doré, comprised in the valuable series
_Variétés Sinologiques_, published by the Catholic Mission Press
at Shanghai. The native works contained in the Ssu K'u Ch'üan Shu,
one of the few public libraries in Peking, have proved useful for
purposes of reference. My heartiest thanks are due to my good friend
Mr Mu Hsüeh-hsün, a scholar of wide learning and generous disposition,
for having kindly allowed me to use his very large and useful library
of Chinese books. The late Dr G.E. Morrison also, until he sold it
to a Japanese baron, was good enough to let me consult his extensive
collection of foreign works relating to China whenever I wished, but
owing to the fact that so very little work has been done in Chinese
mythology by Western writers I found it better in dealing with this
subject to go direct to the original Chinese texts. I am indebted to
Professor H.A. Giles, and to his publishers, Messrs Kelly and Walsh,
Shanghai, for permission to reprint from _Strange Stories from a
Chinese Studio_ the fox legends given in Chapter XV.

This is, so far as I know, the only monograph on Chinese mythology
in any non-Chinese language. Nor do the native works include any
scientific analysis or philosophical treatment of their myths.

My aim, after summarizing the sociology of the Chinese as a
prerequisite to the understanding of their ideas and sentiments,
and dealing as fully as possible, consistently with limitations of
space (limitations which have necessitated the presentation of a
very large and intricate topic in a highly compressed form), with
the philosophy of the subject, has been to set forth in English dress
those myths which may be regarded as the accredited representatives
of Chinese mythology--those which live in the minds of the people and
are referred to most frequently in their literature, not those which
are merely diverting without being typical or instructive--in short,
a true, not a distorted image.

_Edward Theodore Chalmers Werner_

_Peking_
_February_ 1922



Contents



Chapter

I.      The Sociology of the Chinese
II.     On Chinese Mythology
III.    Cosmogony--P'an Ku and the Creation Myth
IV.     The Gods of China
V.      Myths of the Stars
VI.     Myths of Thunder, Lightning, Wind, and Rain
VII.    Myths of the Waters
VIII.   Myths of Fire
IX.     Myths of Epidemics, Medicine, Exorcism, Etc.
X.      The Goddess of Mercy
XI.     The Eight Immortals
XII.    The Guardian of the Gate of Heaven
XIII.   A Battle of the Gods
XIV.    How the Monkey Became a God
XV.     Fox Legends
XVI.    Miscellaneous Legends
        The Pronunciation of Chinese Words



_Mais cet Orient, cette Asie, quelles en sont, enfin, les frontières
réelles?... Ces frontières sont d'une netteté qui ne permet aucune
erreur. L'Asie est là où cesse la vulgarité, où naît la dignité,
et où commence l'élégance intellectuelle. Et l'Orient est là où sont
les sources débordantes de poésie._

_Mardrus_,
_La Reine de Saba_



CHAPTER I

The Sociology of the Chinese


Racial Origin

In spite of much research and conjecture, the origin of the Chinese
people remains undetermined. We do not know who they were nor whence
they came. Such evidence as there is points to their immigration
from elsewhere; the Chinese themselves have a tradition of a Western
origin. The first picture we have of their actual history shows us, not
a people behaving as if long settled in a land which was their home and
that of their forefathers, but an alien race fighting with wild beasts,
clearing dense forests, and driving back the aboriginal inhabitants.

Setting aside several theories (including the one that the Chinese
are autochthonous and their civilization indigenous) now regarded
by the best authorities as untenable, the researches of sinologists
seem to indicate an origin (1) in early Akkadia; or (2) in Khotan,
the Tarim valley (generally what is now known as Eastern Turkestan),
or the K'un-lun Mountains (concerning which more presently). The
second hypothesis may relate only to a sojourn of longer or shorter
duration on the way from Akkadia to the ultimate settlement in China,
especially since the Khotan civilization has been shown to have
been imported from the Punjab in the third century B.C. The fact
that serious mistakes have been made regarding the identifications
of early Chinese rulers with Babylonian kings, and of the Chinese
_po-hsing_ (Cantonese _bak-sing_) 'people' with the Bak Sing or Bak
tribes, does not exclude the possibility of an Akkadian origin. But
in either case the immigration into China was probably gradual, and
may have taken the route from Western or Central Asia direct to the
banks of the Yellow River, or may possibly have followed that to the
south-east through Burma and then to the north-east through what is
now China--the settlement of the latter country having thus spread
from south-west to north-east, or in a north-easterly direction along
the Yangtzu River, and so north, instead of, as is generally supposed,
from north to south.


Southern Origin Improbable

But this latter route would present many difficulties; it would seem
to have been put forward merely as ancillary to the theory that the
Chinese originated in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. This theory is
based upon the assumptions that the ancient Chinese ideograms include
representations of tropical animals and plants; that the oldest and
purest forms of the language are found in the south; and that the
Chinese and the Indo-Chinese groups of languages are both tonal. But
all of these facts or alleged facts are as easily or better accounted
for by the supposition that the Chinese arrived from the north
or north-west in successive waves of migration, the later arrivals
pushing the earlier farther and farther toward the south, so that the
oldest and purest forms of Chinese would be found just where they are,
the tonal languages of the Indo-Chinese peninsula being in that case
regarded as the languages of the vanguard of the migration. Also, the
ideograms referred to represent animals and plants of the temperate
zone rather than of the tropics, but even if it could be shown, which
it cannot, that these animals and plants now belong exclusively to the
tropics, that would be no proof of the tropical origin of the Chinese,
for in the earliest times the climate of North China was much milder
than it is now, and animals such as tigers and elephants existed in the
dense jungles which are later found only in more southern latitudes.


Expansion of Races from North to South

The theory of a southern origin (to which a further serious objection
will be stated presently) implies a gradual infiltration of Chinese
immigrants through South or Mid-China (as above indicated) toward
the north, but there is little doubt that the movement of the races
has been from north to south and not _vice versa_. In what are now
the provinces of Western Kansu and Ssuch'uan there lived a people
related to the Chinese (as proved by the study of Indo-Chinese
comparative philology) who moved into the present territory of Tibet
and are known as Tibetans; in what is now the province of Yünnan were
the Shan or Ai-lao (modern Laos), who, forced by Mongol invasions,
emigrated to the peninsula in the south and became the Siamese; and in
Indo-China, not related to the Chinese, were the Annamese, Khmer, Mon,
Khasi, Colarains (whose remnants are dispersed over the hill tracts
of Central India), and other tribes, extending in prehistoric times
into Southern China, but subsequently driven back by the expansion
of the Chinese in that direction.


Arrival of the Chinese in China

Taking into consideration all the existing evidence, the objections to
all other theories of the origin of the Chinese seem to be greater
than any yet raised to the theory that immigrants from the Tarim
valley or beyond (_i.e._ from Elam or Akkadia, either direct or _via_
Eastern Turkestan) struck the banks of the Yellow River in their
eastward journey and followed its course until they reached the
localities where we first find them settled, namely, in the region
covered by parts of the three modern provinces of Shansi, Shensi,
and Honan where their frontiers join. They were then (about 2500 or
3000 B.C.) in a relatively advanced state of civilization. The country
east and south of this district was inhabited by aboriginal tribes,
with whom the Chinese fought, as they did with the wild animals and the
dense vegetation, but with whom they also commingled and intermarried,
and among whom they planted colonies as centres from which to spread
their civilization.


The K'un-lun Mountains

With reference to the K'un-lun Mountains, designated in Chinese
mythology as the abode of the gods--the ancestors of the Chinese
race--it should be noted that these are identified not with the range
dividing Tibet from Chinese Turkestan, but with the Hindu Kush. That
brings us somewhat nearer to Babylon, and the apparent convergence
of the two theories, the Central Asian and the Western Asian, would
seem to point to a possible solution of the problem. Nü Kua, one of
the alleged creators of human beings, and Nü and Kua, the first two
human beings (according to a variation of the legend), are placed
in the K'un-lun Mountains. That looks hopeful. Unfortunately, the
K'un-lun legend is proved to be of Taoist origin. K'un-lun is the
central mountain of the world, and 3000 miles in height. There is
the fountain of immortality, and thence flow the four great rivers
of the world. In other words, it is the Sumêru of Hindu mythology
transplanted into Chinese legend, and for our present purpose without
historical value.

It would take up too much space to go into details of this interesting
problem of the origin of the Chinese and their civilization, the
cultural connexions or similarities of China and Western Asia in
pre-Babylonian times, the origin of the two distinct culture-areas
so marked throughout the greater part of Chinese history, etc., and
it will be sufficient for our present purpose to state the conclusion
to which the evidence points.


Provisional Conclusion

Pending the discovery of decisive evidence, the following provisional
conclusion has much to recommend it--namely, that the ancestors
of the Chinese people came from the west, from Akkadia or Elam,
or from Khotan, or (more probably) from Akkadia or Elam _via_
Khotan, as one nomad or pastoral tribe or group of nomad or pastoral
tribes, or as successive waves of immigrants, reached what is now
China Proper at its north-west corner, settled round the elbow of
the Yellow River, spread north-eastward, eastward, and southward,
conquering, absorbing, or pushing before them the aborigines into
what is now South and South-west China. These aboriginal races, who
represent a wave or waves of neolithic immigrants from Western Asia
earlier than the relatively high-headed immigrants into North China
(who arrived about the twenty-fifth or twenty-fourth century B.C.),
and who have left so deep an impress on the Japanese, mixed and
intermarried with the Chinese in the south, eventually producing the
pronounced differences, in physical, mental, and emotional traits,
in sentiments, ideas, languages, processes, and products, from the
Northern Chinese which are so conspicuous at the present day.



Inorganic Environment

At the beginning of their known history the country occupied by the
Chinese was the comparatively small region above mentioned. It was
then a tract of an irregular oblong shape, lying between latitude 34°
and 40° N. and longitude 107° and 114° E. This territory round the
elbow of the Yellow River had an area of about 50,000 square miles,
and was gradually extended to the sea-coast on the north-east as far as
longitude 119°, when its area was about doubled. It had a population of
perhaps a million, increasing with the expansion to two millions. This
may be called infant China. Its period (the Feudal Period) was in
the two thousand years between the twenty-fourth and third centuries
B.C. During the first centuries of the Monarchical Period, which lasted
from 221 B.C. to A.D. 1912, it had expanded to the south to such an
extent that it included all of the Eighteen Provinces constituting
what is known as China Proper of modern times, with the exception of
a portion of the west of Kansu and the greater portions of Ssuch'uan
and Yünnan. At the time of the Manchu conquest at the beginning of the
seventeenth century A.D. it embraced all the territory lying between
latitude 18° and 40° N. and longitude 98° and 122° E. (the Eighteen
Provinces or China Proper), with the addition of the vast outlying
territories of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, Koko-nor, Tibet, and Corea,
with suzerainty over Burma and Annam--an area of more than 5,000,000
square miles, including the 2,000,000 square miles covered by the
Eighteen Provinces. Generally, this territory is mountainous in the
west, sloping gradually down toward the sea on the east. It contains
three chief ranges of mountains and large alluvial plains in the north,
east, and south. Three great and about thirty large rivers intersect
the country, their numerous tributaries reaching every part of it.

As regards geological features, the great alluvial plains rest upon
granite, new red sandstone, or limestone. In the north is found the
peculiar loess formation, having its origin probably in the accumulated
dust of ages blown from the Mongolian plateau. The passage from north
to south is generally from the older to the newer rocks; from east to
west a similar series is found, with some volcanic features in the
west and south. Coal and iron are the chief minerals, gold, silver,
copper, lead, tin, jade, etc., being also mined.

The climate of this vast area is not uniform. In the north the winter
is long and rigorous, the summer hot and dry, with a short rainy season
in July and August; in the south the summer is long, hot, and moist,
the winter short. The mean temperature is 50.3° F. and 70° F. in the
north and south respectively. Generally, the thermometer is low for
the latitude, though perhaps it is more correct to say that the Gulf
Stream raises the temperature of the west coast of Europe above the
average. The mean rainfall in the north is 16, in the south 70 inches,
with variations in other parts. Typhoons blow in the south between
July and October.


Organic Environment

The vegetal productions are abundant and most varied. The rice-zone
(significant in relation to the cultural distinctions above noted)
embraces the southern half of the country. Tea, first cultivated
for its infusion in A.D. 350, is grown in the southern and central
provinces between the twenty-third and thirty-fifth degrees of
latitude, though it is also found as far north as Shantung, the chief
'tea district,' however, being the large area south of the Yangtzu
River, east of the Tungting Lake and great Siang River, and north of
the Kuangtung Province. The other chief vegetal products are wheat,
barley, maize, millet, the bean, yam, sweet and common potato, tomato,
eggplant, ginseng, cabbage, bamboo, indigo, pepper, tobacco, camphor,
tallow, ground-nut, poppy, water-melon, sugar, cotton, hemp, and
silk. Among the fruits grown are the date, mulberry, orange, lemon,
pumelo, persimmon, lichi, pomegranate, pineapple, fig, coconut, mango,
and banana, besides the usual kinds common in Western countries.

The wild animals include the tiger, panther, leopard, bear, sable,
otter, monkey, wolf, fox, twenty-seven or more species of ruminants,
and numerous species of rodents. The rhinoceros, elephant, and tapir
still exist in Yünnan. The domestic animals include the camel and the
water-buffalo. There are about 700 species of birds, and innumerable
species of fishes and insects.


Sociological Environment

On their arrival in what is now known as China the Chinese, as already
noted, fought with the aboriginal tribes. The latter were exterminated,
absorbed, or driven south with the spread of Chinese rule. The Chinese
"picked out the eyes of the land," and consequently the non-Chinese
tribes now live in the unhealthy forests or marshes of the south,
or in mountain regions difficult of access, some even in trees (a
voluntary, not compulsory promotion), though several, such as the Dog
Jung in Fukien, retain settlements like islands among the ruling race.

In the third century B.C. began the hostile relations of the Chinese
with the northern nomads, which continued throughout the greater
part of their history. During the first six centuries A.D. there was
intercourse with Rome, Parthia, Turkey, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, India,
and Indo-China, and in the seventh century with the Arabs. Europe
was brought within the sociological environment by Christian
travellers. From the tenth to the thirteenth century the north
was occupied by Kitans and Nüchêns, and the whole Empire was under
Mongol sway for eighty-eight years in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. Relations of a commercial and religious nature were held
with neighbours during the following four hundred years. Regular
diplomatic intercourse with Western nations was established as a result
of a series of wars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Until
recently the nation held aloof from alliances and was generally averse
to foreign intercourse. From 1537 onward, as a sequel of war or treaty,
concessions, settlements, etc., were obtained by foreign Powers. China
has now lost some of her border countries and large adjacent islands,
the military and commercial pressure of Western nations and Japan
having taken the place of the military pressure of the Tartars already
referred to. The great problem for her, an agricultural nation, is
how to find means and the military spirit to maintain her integrity,
the further violation of which could not but be regarded by the student
of sociological history as a great tragedy and a world-wide calamity.


Physical, Emotional, and Intellectual Characters

The physical characters of the Chinese are too well known to need
detailed recital. The original immigrants into North China all
belonged to blond races, but the modern Chinese have little left of
the immigrant stock. The oblique, almond-shaped eyes, with black iris
and the orbits far apart, have a vertical fold of skin over the inner
canthus, concealing a part of the iris, a peculiarity distinguishing
the eastern races of Asia from all other families of man. The stature
and weight of brain are generally below the average. The hair is black,
coarse, and cylindrical; the beard scanty or absent. The colour of
the skin is darker in the south than in the north.

Emotionally the Chinese are sober, industrious, of remarkable
endurance, grateful, courteous, and ceremonious, with a high sense
of mercantile honour, but timorous, cruel, unsympathetic, mendacious,
and libidinous.

Intellectually they were until recently, and to a large extent
still are, non-progressive, in bondage to uniformity and mechanism
in culture, imitative, unimaginative, torpid, indirect, suspicious,
and superstitious.

The character is being modified by intercourse with other peoples
of the earth and by the strong force of physical, intellectual,
and moral education.


Marriage in Early Times

Certain parts of the marriage ceremonial of China as now existing
indicate that the original form of marriage was by capture--of which,
indeed, there is evidence in the classical _Book of Odes_. But a
regular form of marriage (in reality a contract of sale) is shown
to have existed in the earliest historical times. The form was not
monogamous, though it seems soon to have assumed that of a qualified
monogamy consisting of one wife and one or more concubines, the
number of the latter being as a rule limited only by the means of the
husband. The higher the rank the larger was the number of concubines
and handmaids in addition to the wife proper, the palaces of the
kings and princes containing several hundreds of them. This form it
has retained to the present day, though associations now exist for
the abolition of concubinage. In early times, as well as throughout
the whole of Chinese history, concubinage was in fact universal,
and there is some evidence also of polyandry (which, however, cannot
have prevailed to any great extent). The age for marriage was twenty
for the man and fifteen for the girl, celibacy after thirty and twenty
respectively being officially discouraged. In the province of Shantung
it was usual for the wives to be older than their husbands. The
parents' consent to the betrothal was sought through the intervention
of a matchmaker, the proposal originating with the parents, and
the wishes of the future bride and bridegroom not being taken into
consideration. The conclusion of the marriage was the progress of the
bride from the house of her parents to that of the bridegroom, where
after various ceremonies she and he worshipped his ancestors together,
the worship amounting to little more than an announcement of the union
to the ancestral spirits. After a short sojourn with her husband the
bride revisited her parents, and the marriage was not considered as
finally consummated until after this visit had taken place.

The status of women was low, and the power of the husband great--so
great that he could kill his wife with impunity. Divorce was common,
and all in favour of the husband, who, while he could not be
divorced by her, could put his wife away for disobedience or even
for loquaciousness. A widower remarried immediately, but refusal
to remarry by a widow was esteemed an act of chastity. She often
mutilated herself or even committed suicide to prevent remarriage,
and was posthumously honoured for doing so. Being her husband's as
much in the Otherworld as in this, remarriage would partake of the
character of unchastity and insubordination; the argument, of course,
not applying to the case of the husband, who by remarriage simply
adds another member to his clan without infringing on anyone's rights.


Marriage in Monarchical and Republican Periods

The marital system of the early classical times, of which the above
were the essentials, changed but little during the long period of
monarchical rule lasting from 221 B.C. to A.D. 1912. The principal
object, as before, was to secure an heir to sacrifice to the spirits of
deceased progenitors. Marriage was not compulsory, but old bachelors
and old maids were very scarce. The concubines were subject to the
wife, who was considered to be the mother of their children as well
as her own. Her status, however, was not greatly superior. Implicit
obedience was exacted from her. She could not possess property, but
could not be hired out for prostitution. The latter vice was common,
in spite of the early age at which marriage took place and in spite
of the system of concubinage--which is after all but a legalized
transfer of prostitutional cohabitation to the domestic circle.

Since the establishment of the Republic in 1912 the 'landslide' in the
direction of Western progress has had its effect also on the domestic
institutions. But while the essentials of the marriage contract remain
practically the same as before, the most conspicuous changes have been
in the accompanying ceremonial--now sometimes quite foreign, but in a
very large, perhaps the greatest, number of cases that odious thing,
half foreign, half Chinese; as, for instance, when the procession,
otherwise native, includes foreign glass-panelled carriages, or the
bridegroom wears a 'bowler' or top-hat with his Chinese dress--and
in the greater freedom allowed to women, who are seen out of doors
much more than formerly, sit at table with their husbands, attend
public functions and dinners, dress largely in foreign fashion,
and play tennis and other games, instead of being prisoners of the
'inner apartment' and household drudges little better than slaves.

One unexpected result of this increased freedom is certainly
remarkable, and is one not likely to have been predicted by the most
far-sighted sociologist. Many of the 'progressive' Chinese, now that
it is the fashion for Chinese wives to be seen in public with their
husbands, finding the uneducated, _gauche_, small-footed household
drudge unable to compete with the smarter foreign-educated wives
of their neighbours, have actually repudiated them and taken unto
themselves spouses whom they can exhibit in public without 'loss
of face'! It is, however, only fair to add that the total number
of these cases, though by no means inconsiderable, appears to be
proportionately small.


Parents and Children

As was the power of the husband over the wife, so was that of the
father over his children. Infanticide (due chiefly to poverty,
and varying with it) was frequent, especially in the case of female
children, who were but slightly esteemed; the practice prevailing
extensively in three or four provinces, less extensively in others,
and being practically absent in a large number. Beyond the fact that
some penalties were enacted against it by the Emperor Ch'ien Lung
(A.D. 1736-96), and that by statute it was a capital offence to murder
children in order to use parts of their bodies for medicine, it was
not legally prohibited. When the abuse became too scandalous in any
district proclamations condemning it would be issued by the local
officials. A man might, by purchase and contract, adopt a person
as son, daughter, or grandchild, such person acquiring thereby all
the rights of a son or daughter. Descent, both of real and personal
property, was to all the sons of wives and concubines as joint heirs,
irrespective of seniority. Bastards received half shares. Estates were
not divisible by the children during the lifetime of their parents
or grandparents.

The head of the family being but the life-renter of the family
property, bound by fixed rules, wills were superfluous, and were used
only where the customary respect for the parents gave them a voice
in arranging the details of the succession. For this purpose verbal
or written instructions were commonly given.

In the absence of the father, the male relatives of the same surname
assumed the guardianship of the young. The guardian exercised full
authority and enjoyed the surplus revenues of his ward's estate,
but might not alienate the property.

There are many instances in Chinese history of extreme devotion of
children to parents taking the form of self-wounding and even of
suicide in the hope of curing parents' illnesses or saving their lives.


Political History

The country inhabited by the Chinese on their arrival from the West
was, as we saw, the district where the modern provinces of Shansi,
Shensi, and Honan join. This they extended in an easterly direction
to the shores of the Gulf of Chihli--a stretch of territory about 600
miles long by 300 broad. The population, as already stated, was between
one and two millions. During the first two thousand years of their
known history the boundaries of this region were not greatly enlarged,
but beyond the more or less undefined borderland to the south were
_chou_ or colonies, nuclei of Chinese population, which continually
increased in size through conquest of the neighbouring territory. In
221 B.C. all the feudal states into which this territory had been
parcelled out, and which fought with one another, were subjugated
and absorbed by the state of Ch'in, which in that year instituted the
monarchical form of government--the form which obtained in China for
the next twenty-one centuries.

Though the origin of the name 'China' has not yet been finally decided,
the best authorities regard it as derived from the name of this feudal
state of Ch'in.

Under this short-lived dynasty of Ch'in and the famous Han dynasty
(221 B.C. to A.D. 221) which followed it, the Empire expanded until
it embraced almost all the territory now known as China Proper
(the Eighteen Provinces of Manchu times). To these were added
in order between 194 B.C. and A.D. 1414: Corea, Sinkiang (the
New Territory or Eastern Turkestan), Manchuria, Formosa, Tibet,
and Mongolia--Formosa and Corea being annexed by Japan in 1895 and
1910 respectively. Numerous other extra-China countries and islands,
acquired and lost during the long course of Chinese history (at one
time, from 73 to 48 B.C., "all Asia from Japan to the Caspian Sea was
tributary to the Middle Kingdom," _i.e._ China), it is not necessary
to mention here. During the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1280) the
Tartars owned the northern half of China, as far down as the Yangtzu
River, and in the Yüan dynasty (1280-1368) they conquered the whole
country. During the period 1644-1912 it was in the possession of
the Manchus. At present the five chief component peoples of China are
represented in the striped national flag (from the top downward) by red
(Manchus), yellow (Chinese), blue (Mongolians), white (Mohammedans),
and black (Tibetans). This flag was adopted on the establishment of the
Republic in 1912, and supplanted the triangular Dragon flag previously
in use. By this time the population--which had varied considerably at
different periods owing to war, famine, and pestilence--had increased
to about 400,000,000.


General Government

The general division of the nation was into the King and the People,
The former was regarded as appointed by the will of Heaven and
as the parent of the latter. Besides being king, he was also
law-giver, commander-in-chief of the armies, high priest, and
master of ceremonies. The people were divided into four classes: (1)
_Shih_, Officers (later Scholars), consisting of _Ch'ên_, Officials
(a few of whom were ennobled), and _Shên Shih_, Gentry; (2) _Nung_,
Agriculturists; (3) _Kung_, Artisans; and (4) _Shang_, Merchants.

For administrative purposes there were at the seat of central
government (which, first at P'ing-yang--in modern Shansi--was
moved eleven times during the Feudal Period, and was finally
at Yin) ministers, or ministers and a hierarchy of officials,
the country being divided into provinces, varying in number from
nine in the earliest times to thirty-six under the First Emperor,
221 B.C., and finally twenty-two at the present day. At first these
provinces contained states, which were models of the central state,
the ruler's 'Middle Kingdom.' The provincial administration was
in the hands of twelve Pastors or Lord-Lieutenants. They were the
chiefs of all the nobles in a province. Civil and military offices
were not differentiated. The feudal lords or princes of states often
resided at the king's court, officers of that court being also sent
forth as princes of states. The king was the source of legislation
and administered justice. The princes in their several states had
the power of rewards and punishments. Revenue was derived from a
tithe on the land, from the income of artisans, merchants, fishermen,
foresters, and from the tribute brought by savage tribes.

The general structure and principles of this system of administration
remained the same, with few variations, down to the end of the
Monarchical Period in 1912. At the end of that period we find the
emperor still considered as of divine descent, still the head of
the civil, legislative, military, ecclesiastical, and ceremonial
administration, with the nation still divided into the same four
classes. The chief ministries at the capital, Peking, could in most
cases trace their descent from their prototypes of feudal times, and
the principal provincial administrative officials--the Governor-General
or Viceroy, governor, provincial treasurer, judge, etc.--had similarly
a pedigree running back to offices then existing--a continuous duration
of adherence to type which is probably unique.

Appointment to office was at first by selection, followed by an
examination to test proficiency; later was introduced the system of
public competitive literary examinations for office, fully organized
in the seventeenth century, and abolished in 1903, when official
positions were thrown open to the graduates of colleges established
on a modern basis.

In 1912, on the overthrow of the Manchu monarchy, China became a
republic, with an elected President, and a Parliament consisting
of a Senate and House of Representatives. The various government
departments were reorganized on Western lines, and a large number
of new offices instituted. Up to the present year the Law of the
Constitution, owing to political dissension between the North and
the South, has not been put into force.


Laws

Chinese law, like primitive law generally, was not instituted
in order to ensure justice between man and man; its object was
to enforce subordination of the ruled to the ruler. The laws were
punitive and vindictive rather than reformatory or remedial, criminal
rather than civil. Punishments were cruel: branding, cutting off the
nose, the legs at the knees, castration, and death, the latter not
necessarily, or indeed ordinarily, for taking life. They included in
some cases punishment of the family, the clan, and the neighbours of
the offender. The _lex talionis_ was in full force.

Nevertheless, in spite of the harsh nature of the punishments, possibly
adapted, more or less, to a harsh state of society, though the "proper
end of punishments"--to "make an end of punishing"--was missed, the
Chinese evolved a series of excellent legal codes. This series began
with the revision of King Mu's _Punishments_ in 950 B.C., the first
regular code being issued in 650 B.C., and ended with the well-known
_Ta Ch'ing lü li_ (_Laws and Statutes of the Great Ch'ing Dynasty_),
issued in A.D. 1647. Of these codes the great exemplar was the _Law
Classic_ drawn up by Li K'uei (_Li K'uei fa ching_), a statesman
in the service of the first ruler of the Wei State, in the fourth
century B.C. The _Ta Ch'ing lü li_ has been highly praised by competent
judges. Originally it sanctioned only two kinds of punishment, death
and flogging, but others were in use, and the barbarous _ling ch'ih_,
'lingering death' or 'slicing to pieces,' invented about A.D. 1000
and abolished in 1905, was inflicted for high treason, parricide,
on women who killed their husbands, and murderers of three persons
of one family. In fact, until some first-hand knowledge of Western
systems and procedure was obtained, the vindictive as opposed to the
reformatory idea of punishments continued to obtain in China down to
quite recent years, and has not yet entirely disappeared. Though the
crueller forms of punishment had been legally abolished, they continued
to be used in many parts. Having been joint judge at Chinese trials
at which, in spite of my protests, prisoners were hung up by their
thumbs and made to kneel on chains in order to extort confession
(without which no accused person could be punished), I can testify
that the true meaning of the "proper end of punishments" had no more
entered into the Chinese mind at the close of the monarchical _régime_
than it had 4000 years before.

As a result of the reform movement into which China was forced as
an alternative to foreign domination toward the end of the Manchu
Period, but chiefly owing to the bait held out by Western Powers,
that extraterritoriality would be abolished when China had reformed
her judicial system, a new Provisional Criminal Code was published. It
substituted death by hanging or strangulation for decapitation, and
imprisonment for various lengths of time for bambooing. It was adopted
in large measure by the Republican _régime_, and is the chief legal
instrument in use at the present time. But close examination reveals
the fact that it is almost an exact copy of the Japanese penal code,
which in turn was modelled upon that of Germany. It is, in fact, a
Western code imitated, and as it stands is quite out of harmony with
present conditions in China. It will have to be modified and recast
to be a suitable, just, and practicable national legal instrument
for the Chinese people. Moreover, it is frequently overridden in a
high-handed manner by the police, who often keep a person acquitted
by the Courts of Justice in custody until they have 'squeezed' him
of all they can hope to get out of him. And it is noteworthy that,
though provision was made in the Draft Code for trial by jury, this
provision never went into effect; and the slavish imitation of alien
methods is shown by the curiously inconsistent reason given--that "the
fact that jury trials have been abolished in Japan is indicative of the
inadvisability of transplanting this Western institution into China!"


Local Government

The central administration being a far-flung network of officialdom,
there was hardly any room for local government apart from it. We
find it only in the village elder and those associated with him, who
took up what government was necessary where the jurisdiction of the
unit of the central administration--the district magistracy--ceased,
or at least did not concern itself in meddling much.


Military System

The peace-loving agricultural settlers in early China had at first
no army. When occasion arose, all the farmers exchanged their
ploughshares for swords and bows and arrows, and went forth to
fight. In the intervals between the harvests, when the fields were
clear, they held manoeuvres and practised the arts of warfare. The
king, who had his Six Armies, under the Six High Nobles, forming
the royal military force, led the troops in person, accompanied by
the spirit-tablets of his ancestors and of the gods of the land and
grain. Chariots, drawn by four horses and containing soldiers armed
with spears and javelins and archers, were much in use. A thousand
chariots was the regular force. Warriors wore buskins on their legs,
and were sometimes gagged in order to prevent the alarm being given to
the enemy. In action the chariots occupied the centre, the bowmen the
left, the spearmen the right flank. Elephants were sometimes used in
attack. Spy-kites, signal-flags, hook-ladders, horns, cymbals, drums,
and beacon-fires were in use. The ears of the vanquished were taken
to the king, quarter being rarely if ever given.

After the establishment of absolute monarchical government standing
armies became the rule. Military science was taught, and soldiers
sometimes trained for seven years. Chariots with upper storeys or
spy-towers were used for fighting in narrow defiles, and hollow squares
were formed of mixed chariots, infantry, and dragoons. The weakness of
disunion of forces was well understood. In the sixth century A.D. the
massed troops numbered about a million and a quarter. In A.D. 627
there was an efficient standing army of 900,000 men, the term of
service being from the ages of twenty to sixty. During the Mongol
dynasty (1280-1368) there was a navy of 5000 ships manned by 70,000
trained fighters. The Mongols completely revolutionized tactics and
improved on all the military knowledge of the time. In 1614 the Manchu
'Eight Banners,' composed of Manchus, Mongolians, and Chinese, were
instituted. The provincial forces, designated the Army of the Green
Standard, were divided into land forces and marine forces, superseded
on active service by 'braves' (_yung_), or irregulars, enlisted and
discharged according to circumstances. After the war with Japan in
1894 reforms were seriously undertaken, with the result that the army
has now been modernized in dress, weapons, tactics, etc., and is by
no means a negligible quantity in the world's fighting forces. A
modern navy is also being acquired by building and purchase. For
many centuries the soldier, being, like the priest, unproductive,
was regarded with disdain, and now that his indispensableness for
defensive purposes is recognized he has to fight not only any actual
enemy who may attack him, but those far subtler forces from over the
sea which seem likely to obtain supremacy in his military councils,
if not actual control of his whole military system. It is, in my view,
the duty of Western nations to take steps before it is too late to
avert this great disaster.


Ecclesiastical Institutions

The dancing and chanting exorcists called _wu_ were the first Chinese
priests, with temples containing gods worshipped and sacrificed
to, but there was no special sacerdotal class. Worship of Heaven
could only be performed by the king or emperor. Ecclesiastical and
political functions were not completely separated. The king was
_pontifex maximus_, the nobles, statesmen, and civil and military
officers acted as priests, the ranks being similar to those of the
political hierarchy. Worship took place in the 'Hall of Light,'
which was also a palace and audience and council chamber. Sacrifices
were offered to Heaven, the hills and rivers, ancestors, and all the
spirits. Dancing held a conspicuous place in worship. Idols are spoken
of in the earliest times.

Of course, each religion, as it formed itself out of the original
ancestor-worship, had its own sacred places, functionaries,
observances, ceremonial. Thus, at the State worship of Heaven, Nature,
etc., there were the 'Great,' 'Medium,' and 'Inferior' sacrifices,
consisting of animals, silk, grain, jade, etc. Panegyrics were sung,
and robes of appropriate colour worn. In spring, summer, autumn,
and winter there were the seasonal sacrifices at the appropriate
altars. Taoism and Buddhism had their temples, monasteries, priests,
sacrifices, and ritual; and there were village and wayside temples
and shrines to ancestors, the gods of thunder, rain, wind, grain,
agriculture, and many others. Now encouraged, now tolerated, now
persecuted, the ecclesiastical _personnel_ and structure of Taoism and
Buddhism survived into modern times, when we find complete schemes
of ecclesiastical gradations of rank and authority grafted upon
these two priestly hierarchies, and their temples, priests, etc.,
fulfilling generally, with worship of ancestors, State or official
(Confucianism) and private or unofficial, and the observance of various
annual festivals, such as 'All Souls' Day' for wandering and hungry
ghosts, the spiritual needs of the people as the 'Three Religions'
(_San Chiao_). The emperor, as high priest, took the responsibility
for calamities, etc., making confession to Heaven and praying that
as a punishment the evil be diverted from the people to his own
person. Statesmen, nobles, and officials discharged, as already noted,
priestly functions in connexion with the State religion in addition
to their ordinary duties. As a rule, priests proper, frowned upon as
non-producers, were recruited from the lower classes, were celibate,
unintellectual, idle, and immoral. There was nothing, even in the
elaborate ceremonies on special occasions in the Buddhist temples,
which could be likened to what is known as 'public worship' and
'common prayer' in the West. Worship had for its sole object either
the attainment of some good or the prevention of some evil.

Generally this represents the state of things under the Republican
_régime_; the chief differences being greater neglect of ecclesiastical
matters and the conversion of a large number of temples into schools.


Professional Institutions

We read of physicians, blind musicians, poets, teachers, prayer-makers,
architects, scribes, painters, diviners, ceremonialists, orators,
and others during the Feudal Period, These professions were of
ecclesiastical origin, not yet completely differentiated from the
'Church,' and both in earlier and later times not always or often
differentiated from each other. Thus the historiographers combined the
duties of statesmen, scholars, authors, and generals. The professions
of authors and teachers, musicians and poets, were united in one
person. And so it continued to the present day. Priests discharge
medical functions, poets still sing their verses. But experienced
medical specialists, though few, are to be found, as well as women
doctors; there are veterinary surgeons, musicians (chiefly belonging
to the poorest classes and often blind), actors, teachers, attorneys,
diviners, artists, letter-writers, and many others, men of letters
being perhaps the most prominent and most esteemed.



Accessory Institutions

A system of schools, academies, colleges, and universities obtained in
villages, districts, departments, and principalities. The instruction
was divided into 'Primary Learning' and 'Great Learning.' There were
special schools of dancing and music. Libraries and almshouses for
old men are mentioned. Associations of scholars for literary purposes
seem to have been numerous.

Whatever form and direction education might have taken, it became
stereotyped at an early age by the road to office being made to
lead through a knowledge of the classical writings of the ancient
sages. It became not only 'the thing' to be well versed in the sayings
of Confucius, Mencius; etc., and to be able to compose good essays on
them containing not a single wrongly written character, but useless
for aspirants to office--who constituted practically the whole of the
literary class--to acquire any other knowledge. So obsessed was the
national mind by this literary mania that even infants' spines were
made to bend so as to produce when adult the 'scholarly stoop.' And
from the fact that besides the scholar class the rest of the community
consisted of agriculturists, artisans, and merchants, whose knowledge
was that of their fathers and grandfathers, inculcated in the sons
and grandsons as it had been in them, showing them how to carry on
in the same groove the calling to which Fate had assigned them, a
departure from which would have been considered 'unfilial'--unless,
of course (as it very rarely did), it went the length of attaining
through study of the classics a place in the official class, and thus
shedding eternal lustre on the family--it will readily be seen that
there was nothing to cause education to be concerned with any but one
or two of the subjects which are included by Western peoples under
that designation. It became at an early age, and remained for many
centuries, a rote-learning of the elementary text-books, followed by
a similar acquisition by heart of the texts of the works of Confucius
and other classical writers. And so it remained until the abolition, in
1905, of the old competitive examination system, and the substitution
of all that is included in the term 'modern education' at schools,
colleges, and universities all over the country, in which there is
rapidly growing up a force that is regenerating the Chinese people,
and will make itself felt throughout the whole world.

It is this keen and shrewd appreciation of the learned, and this lust
for knowledge, which, barring the tragedy of foreign domination, will
make China, in the truest and best sense of the word, a great nation,
where, as in the United States of America, the rigid class status and
undervaluation, if not disdaining, of knowledge which are proving so
disastrous in England and other European countries will be avoided,
and the aristocracy of learning established in its place.

Besides educational institutions, we find institutions for poor relief,
hospitals, foundling hospitals, orphan asylums, banking, insurance,
and loan associations, travellers' clubs, mercantile corporations,
anti-opium societies, co-operative burial societies, as well as many
others, some imitated from Western models.


Bodily Mutilations

Compared with the practices found to exist among most primitive races,
the mutilations the Chinese were in the habit of inflicting were but
few. They flattened the skulls of their babies by means of stones, so
as to cause them to taper at the top, and we have already seen what
they did to their spines; also the mutilations in warfare, and the
punishments inflicted both within and without the law; and how filial
children and loyal wives mutilated themselves for the sake of their
parents and to prevent remarriage. Eunuchs, of course, existed in great
numbers. People bit, cut, or marked their arms to pledge oaths. But
the practices which are more peculiarly associated with the Chinese
are the compressing of women's feet and the wearing of the queue,
misnamed 'pigtail.' The former is known to have been in force about
A.D. 934, though it may have been introduced as early as 583. It did
not, however, become firmly established for more than a century. This
'extremely painful mutilation,' begun in infancy, illustrates the
tyranny of fashion, for it is supposed to have arisen in the imitation
by the women generally of the small feet of an imperial concubine
admired by one of the emperors from ten to fifteen centuries ago
(the books differ as to his identity). The second was a badge of
servitude inflicted by the Manchus on the Chinese when they conquered
China at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Discountenanced by
governmental edicts, both of these practices are now tending toward
extinction, though, of course, compressed feet and 'pigtails' are
still to be seen in every town and village. Legally, the queue was
abolished when the Chinese rid themselves of the Manchu yoke in 1912.


Funeral Rites

Not understanding the real nature of death, the Chinese believed
it was merely a state of suspended animation, in which the soul
had failed to return to the body, though it might yet do so,
even after long intervals. Consequently they delayed burial, and
fed the corpse, and went on to the house-tops and called aloud
to the spirit to return. When at length they were convinced that
the absent spirit could not be induced to re-enter the body, they
placed the latter in a coffin and buried it--providing it, however,
with all that it had found necessary in this life (food, clothing,
wives, servants, etc.), which it would require also in the next (in
their view rather a continuation of the present existence than the
beginning of another)--and, having inducted or persuaded the spirit
to enter the 'soul-tablet' which accompanied the funeral procession
(which took place the moment the tablet was 'dotted,' _i.e._ when
the character _wang_, 'prince,' was changed into _chu_, 'lord'),
carried it back home again, set it up in a shrine in the main hall,
and fell down and worshipped it. Thus was the spirit propitiated,
and as long as occasional offerings were not overlooked the power
for evil possessed by it would not be exerted against the surviving
inmates of the house, whom it had so thoughtlessly deserted.

The latter mourned by screaming, wailing, stamping their feet,
and beating their breasts, renouncing (in the earliest times) even
their clothes, dwelling, and belongings to the dead, removing to
mourning-sheds of clay, fasting, or eating only rice gruel, sleeping
on straw with a clod for a pillow, and speaking only on subjects of
death and burial. Office and public duties were resigned, and marriage,
music, and separation from the clan prohibited.

During the lapse of the long ages of monarchical rule funeral rites
became more elaborate and magnificent, but, though less rigid and
ceremonious since the institution of the Republic, they have retained
their essential character down to the present day.

Funeral ceremonial was more exacting than that connected with most
other observances, including those of marriage. Invitations or
notifications were sent to friends, and after receipt of these _fu_,
on the various days appointed therein, the guest was obliged to send
presents, such as money, paper horses, slaves, etc., and go and join
in the lamentations of the hired mourners and attend at the prayers
recited by the priests. Funeral etiquette could not be _pu'd, i.e._
made good, if overlooked or neglected at the right time, as it could
in the case of the marriage ceremonial.

Instead of symmetrical public graveyards, as in the West, the
Chinese cemeteries belong to the family or clan of the deceased,
and are generally beautiful and peaceful places planted with trees
and surrounded by artistic walls enclosing the grave-mounds and
monumental tablets. The cemeteries themselves are the metonyms of the
villages, and the graves of the houses. In the north especially the
grave is very often surmounted by a huge marble tortoise bearing the
inscribed tablet, or what we call the gravestone, on its back. The
tombs of the last two lines of emperors, the Ming and the Manchu,
are magnificent structures, spread over enormous areas, and always
artistically situated on hillsides facing natural or artificial lakes
or seas. Contrary to the practice in Egypt, with the two exceptions
above mentioned the conquering dynasties have always destroyed the
tombs of their predecessors. But for this savage vandalism, China
would probably possess the most magnificent assembly of imperial
tombs in the world's records.



Laws of Intercourse

Throughout the whole course of their existence as a social aggregate
the Chinese have pushed ceremonial observances to an extreme
limit. "Ceremonies," says the _Li chi_, the great classic of ceremonial
usages, "are the greatest of all things by which men live." Ranks were
distinguished by different headdresses, garments, badges, weapons,
writing-tablets, number of attendants, carriages, horses, height of
walls, etc. Daily as well as official life was regulated by minute
observances. There were written codes embracing almost every attitude
and act of inferiors toward superiors, of superiors toward inferiors,
and of equals toward equals. Visits, forms of address, and giving
of presents had each their set of formulae, known and observed by
every one as strictly and regularly as each child in China learned by
heart and repeated aloud the three-word sentences of the elementary
_Trimetrical Classic_. But while the school text-book was extremely
simple, ceremonial observances were extremely elaborate. A Chinese
was in this respect as much a slave to the living as in his funeral
rites he was a slave to the dead. Only now, in the rush of 'modern
progress,' is the doffing of the hat taking the place of the 'kowtow'
(_k'o-t'ou_).

It is in this matter of ceremonial observances that the East
and the West have misunderstood each other perhaps more than in
all others. Where rules of etiquette are not only different,
but are diametrically opposed, there is every opportunity for
misunderstanding, if not estrangement. The points at issue in
such questions as 'kowtowing' to the emperor and the worshipping
of ancestors are generally known, but the Westerner, as a rule, is
ignorant of the fact that if he wishes to conform to Chinese etiquette
when in China (instead of to those Western customs which are in many
cases unfortunately taking their place) he should not, for instance,
take off his hat when entering a house or a temple, should not shake
hands with his host, nor, if he wishes to express approval, should he
clap his hands. Clapping of hands in China (_i.e._ non-Europeanized
China) is used to drive away the _sha ch'i_, or deathly influence of
evil spirits, and to clap the hands at the close of the remarks of a
Chinese host (as I have seen prominent, well-meaning, but ill-guided
men of the West do) is equivalent to disapproval, if not insult. Had
our diplomatists been sociologists instead of only commercial agents,
more than one war might have been avoided.


Habits and Customs

At intervals during the year the Chinese make holiday. Their public
festivals begin with the celebration of the advent of the new
year. They let off innumerable firecrackers, and make much merriment
in their homes, drinking and feasting, and visiting their friends
for several days. Accounts are squared, houses cleaned, fresh paper
'door-gods' pasted on the front doors, strips of red paper with
characters implying happiness, wealth, good fortune, longevity, etc.,
stuck on the doorposts or the lintel, tables, etc., covered with red
cloth, and flowers and decorations displayed everywhere. Business
is suspended, and the merriment, dressing in new clothes, feasting,
visiting, offerings to gods and ancestors, and idling continue pretty
consistently during the first half of the first moon, the vacation
ending with the Feast of Lanterns, which occupies the last three
days. It originated in the Han dynasty 2000 years ago. Innumerable
lanterns of all sizes, shapes, colours (except wholly white, or rather
undyed material, the colour of mourning), and designs are lit in front
of public and private buildings, but the use of these was an addition
about 800 years later, _i.e._ about 1200 years ago. Paper dragons,
hundreds of yards long, are moved along the streets at a slow pace,
supported on the heads of men whose legs only are visible, giving
the impression of huge serpents winding through the thoroughfares.

Of the other chief festivals, about eight in number (not counting the
festivals of the four seasons with their equinoxes and solstices), four
are specially concerned with the propitiation of the spirits--namely,
the Earlier Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of second moon), the
Festival of the Tombs (about the third day of the third moon), when
graves are put in order and special offerings made to the dead, the
Middle Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of seventh moon), and the Later
Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of tenth moon). The Dragon-boat Festival
(fifth day of fifth moon) is said to have originated as a commemoration
of the death of the poet Ch'ü Yüan, who drowned himself in disgust
at the official intrigue and corruption of which he was the victim,
but the object is the procuring of sufficient rain to ensure a good
harvest. It is celebrated by racing with long narrow boats shaped to
represent dragons and propelled by scores of rowers, pasting of charms
on the doors of dwellings, and eating a special kind of rice-cake,
with a liquor as a beverage.

The fifteenth day of the eighth moon is the Mid-autumn Festival, known
by foreigners as All Souls' Day. On this occasion the women worship the
moon, offering cakes, fruit, etc. The gates of Purgatory are opened,
and the hungry ghosts troop forth to enjoy themselves for a month on
the good things provided for them by the pious. The ninth day of the
ninth moon is the Chung Yang Festival, when every one who possibly
can ascends to a high place--a hill or temple-tower. This inaugurates
the kite-flying season, and is supposed to promote longevity. During
that season, which lasts several months, the Chinese people the sky
with dragons, centipedes, frogs, butterflies, and hundreds of other
cleverly devised creatures, which, by means of simple mechanisms worked
by the wind, roll their eyes, make appropriate sounds, and move their
paws, wings, tails, etc., in a most realistic manner. The festival
originated in a warning received by a scholar named Huan Ching from
his master Fei Ch'ang-fang, a native of Ju-nan in Honan, who lived
during the Han dynasty, that a terrible calamity was about to happen,
and enjoining him to escape with his family to a high place. On his
return he found all his domestic animals dead, and was told that
they had died instead of himself and his relatives. On New Year's Eve
(_Tuan Nien_ or _Chu Hsi_) the Kitchen-god ascends to Heaven to make
his annual report, the wise feasting him with honey and other sticky
food before his departure, so that his lips may be sealed and he be
unable to 'let on' too much to the powers that be in the regions above!


Sports and Games

The first sports of the Chinese were festival gatherings for purposes
of archery, to which succeeded exercises partaking of a military
character. Hunting was a favourite amusement. They played games of
calculation, chess (or the 'game of war'), shuttlecock with the feet,
pitch-pot (throwing arrows from a distance into a narrow-necked jar),
and 'horn-goring' (fighting on the shoulders of others with horned
masks on their heads). Stilts, football, dice-throwing, boat-racing,
dog-racing, cock-fighting, kite-flying, as well as singing and dancing
marionettes, afforded recreation and amusement.

Many of these games became obsolete in course of time, and new ones
were invented. At the end of the Monarchical Period, during the Manchu
dynasty, we find those most in use to be foot-shuttlecock, lifting of
beams headed with heavy stones--dumb-bells four feet long and weighing
thirty or forty pounds--kite-flying, quail-fighting, cricket-fighting,
sending birds after seeds thrown into the air, sauntering through
fields, playing chess or 'morra,' or gambling with cards, dice, or
over the cricket- and quail-fights or seed-catching birds. There were
numerous and varied children's games tending to develop strength,
skill, quickness of action, parental instinct, accuracy, and
sagacity. Theatricals were performed by strolling troupes on stages
erected opposite temples, though permanent theatres also existed,
female parts until recently being taken by male actors. Peep-shows,
conjurers, ventriloquists, acrobats, fortune-tellers, and story-tellers
kept crowds amused or interested. Generally, 'young China' of the
present day, identified with the party of progress, seems to have
adopted most of the outdoor but very few of the indoor games of
Western nations.


Domestic Life

In domestic or private life, observances at birth, betrothal, and
marriage were elaborate, and retained superstitious elements. Early
rising was general. Shaving of the head and beard, as well as cleaning
of the ears and massage, was done by barbers. There were public
baths in all cities and towns. Shops were closed at nightfall, and,
the streets being until recent times ill-lit or unlit, passengers or
their attendants carried lanterns. Most houses, except the poorest,
had private watchmen. Generally two meals a day were taken. Dinners to
friends were served at inns or restaurants, accompanied or followed
by musical or theatrical performances. The place of honour is stated
in Western books on China to be on the left, but the fact is that the
place of honour is the one which shows the utmost solicitude for the
safety of the guest. It is therefore not necessarily one fixed place,
but would usually be the one facing the door, so that the guest might
be in a position to see an enemy enter, and take measures accordingly.

Lap-dogs and cage-birds were kept as pets; 'wonks,' the _huang kou_,
or 'yellow dog,' were guards of houses and street scavengers. Aquaria
with goldfish were often to be seen in the houses of the upper and
middle classes, the gardens and courtyards of which usually contained
rockeries and artistic shrubs and flowers.

Whiskers were never worn, and moustaches and beards only after forty,
before which age the hair grew, if at all, very scantily. Full,
thick beards, as in the West, were practically never seen, even on
the aged. Snuff-bottles, tobacco-pipes, and fans were carried by both
sexes. Nails were worn long by members of the literary and leisured
classes. Non-Manchu women and girls had cramped feet, and both Manchu
and Chinese women used cosmetics freely.


Industrial Institutions

While the men attended to farm-work, women took care of the
mulberry-orchards and silkworms, and did spinning, weaving, and
embroidery. This, the primitive division of labour, held throughout,
though added to on both sides, so that eventually the men did most
of the agriculture, arts, production, distribution, fighting, etc.,
and the women, besides the duties above named and some field-labour,
mended old clothes, drilled and sharpened needles, pasted tin-foil,
made shoes, and gathered and sorted the leaves of the tea-plant. In
course of time trades became highly specialized--their number being
legion--and localized, bankers, for instance, congregating in Shansi,
carpenters in Chi Chou, and porcelain-manufacturers in Jao Chou,
in Kiangsi.

As to land, it became at an early age the property of the sovereign,
who farmed it out to his relatives or favourites. It was arranged on
the _ching_, or 'well' system--eight private squares round a ninth
public square cultivated by the eight farmer families in common for the
benefit of the State. From the beginning to the end of the Monarchical
Period tenure continued to be of the Crown, land being unallodial, and
mostly held in clans or families, and not entailed, the conditions
of tenure being payment of an annual tax, a fee for alienation,
and money compensation for personal services to the Government,
generally incorporated into the direct tax as scutage. Slavery,
unknown in the earliest times, existed as a recognized institution
during the whole of the Monarchical Period.

Production was chiefly confined to human and animal labour, machinery
being only now in use on a large scale. Internal distribution
was carried on from numerous centres and at fairs, shops, markets,
etc. With few exceptions, the great trade-routes by land and sea have
remained the same during the last two thousand years. Foreign trade was
with Western Asia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Arabia, etc., and from the
seventeenth century A.D. more generally with European countries. The
usual primitive means of conveyance, such as human beings, animals,
carts, boats, etc., were partly displaced by steam-vessels from
1861 onward.

Exchange was effected by barter, cowries of different values being the
prototype of coins, which were cast in greater or less quantity under
each reign. But until within recent years there was only one coin,
the copper cash, in use, bullion and paper notes being the other
media of exchange. Silver Mexican dollars and subsidiary coins came
into use with the advent of foreign commerce. Weights and measures
(which generally decreased from north to south), officially arranged
partly on the decimal system, were discarded by the people in ordinary
commercial transactions for the more convenient duodecimal subdivision.


Arts

Hunting, fishing, cooking, weaving, dyeing, carpentry, metallurgy,
glass-, brick-, and paper-making, printing, and book-binding were
in a more or less primitive stage, the mechanical arts showing much
servile imitation and simplicity in design; but pottery, carving,
and lacquer-work were in an exceptionally high state of development,
the articles produced being surpassed in quality and beauty by no
others in the world.


Agriculture and Rearing of Livestock

From the earliest times the greater portion of the available land was
under cultivation. Except when the country has been devastated by war,
the Chinese have devoted close attention to the cultivation of the
soil continuously for forty centuries. Even the hills are terraced for
extra growing-room. But poverty and governmental inaction caused much
to lie idle. There were two annual crops in the north, and five in two
years in the south. Perhaps two-thirds of the population cultivated the
soil. The methods, however, remained primitive; but the great fertility
of the soil and the great industry of the farmer, with generous but
careful use of fertilizers, enabled the vast territory to support an
enormous population. Rice, wheat, barley, buckwheat, maize, kaoliang,
several millets, and oats were the chief grains cultivated. Beans,
peas, oil-bearing seeds (sesame, rape, etc.), fibre-plants (hemp,
ramie, jute, cotton, etc.), starch-roots (taros, yams, sweet potatoes,
etc.), tobacco, indigo, tea, sugar, fruits, were among the more
important crops produced. Fruit-growing, however, lacked scientific
method. The rotation of crops was not a usual practice, but grafting,
pruning, dwarfing, enlarging, selecting, and varying species were well
understood. Vegetable-culture had reached a high state of perfection,
the smallest patches of land being made to bring forth abundantly. This
is the more creditable inasmuch as most small farmers could not afford
to purchase expensive foreign machinery, which, in many cases, would
be too large or complicated for their purposes.

The principal animals, birds, etc., reared were the pig, ass, horse,
mule, cow, sheep, goat, buffalo, yak, fowl, duck, goose, pigeon,
silkworm, and bee.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, the successor to the Board
of Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce, instituted during recent
years, is now adapting Western methods to the cultivation of the
fertile soil of China, and even greater results than in the past may
be expected in the future.


Sentiments and Moral Ideas

The Chinese have always shown a keen delight in the beautiful--in
flowers, music, poetry, literature, embroidery, paintings,
porcelain. They cultivated ornamental plants, almost every house,
as we saw, having its garden, large or small, and tables were often
decorated with flowers in vases or ornamental wire baskets or fruits or
sweetmeats. Confucius made music an instrument of government. Paper
bearing the written character was so respected that it might not
be thrown on the ground or trodden on. Delight was always shown in
beautiful scenery or tales of the marvellous. Commanding or agreeable
situations were chosen for temples. But until within the last few
years streets and houses were generally unclean, and decency in public
frequently absent.

Morality was favoured by public opinion, but in spite of early
marriages and concubinage there was much laxity. Cruelty both
to human beings and animals has always been a marked trait in
the Chinese character. Savagery in warfare, cannibalism, luxury,
drunkenness, and corruption prevailed in the earliest times. The
attitude toward women was despotic. But moral principles pervaded the
classical writings, and formed the basis of law. In spite of these,
the inferior sentiment of revenge was, as we have seen, approved and
preached as a sacred duty. As a result of the universal _yin-yang_
dualistic doctrines, immorality was leniently regarded. In modern
times, at least, mercantile honour was high, "a merchant's word
is as good as his bond" being truer in China than in many other
countries. Intemperance was rare. Opium-smoking was much indulged in
until the use of the drug was forcibly suppressed (1906-16). Even now
much is smuggled into the country, or its growth overlooked by bribed
officials. Clan quarrels and fights were common, vendettas sometimes
continuing for generations. Suicide under depressing circumstances
was approved and honoured; it was frequently resorted to under the
sting of great injustice. There was a deep reverence for parents
and superiors. Disregard of the truth, when useful, was universal,
and unattended by a sense of shame, even on detection. Thieving was
common. The illegal exactions of rulers were burdensome. In times
of prosperity pride and satisfaction in material matters was not
concealed, and was often short-sighted. Politeness was practically
universal, though said to be often superficial; but gratitude was a
marked characteristic, and was heartfelt. Mutual conjugal affection
was strong. The love of gambling was universal.

But little has occurred in recent years to modify the above
characters. Nevertheless the inferior traits are certainly being
changed by education and by the formation of societies whose members
bind themselves against immorality, concubinage, gambling, drinking,
smoking, etc.


Religious Ideas

Chinese religion is inherently an attitude toward the spirits or gods
with the object of obtaining a benefit or averting a calamity. We
shall deal with it more fully in another chapter. Suffice it to say
here that it originated in ancestor-worship, and that the greater
part of it remains ancestor-worship to the present day. The State
religion, which was Confucianism, was ancestor-worship. Taoism,
originally a philosophy, became a worship of spirits--of the souls of
dead men supposed to have taken up their abode in animals, reptiles,
insects, trees, stones, etc.--borrowed the cloak of religion from
Buddhism, which eventually outshone it, and degenerated into a system
of exorcism and magic. Buddhism, a religion originating in India, in
which Buddha, once a man, is worshipped, in which no beings are known
with greater power than can be attained to by man, and according to
which at death the soul migrates into anything from a deified human
being to an elephant, a bird, a plant, a wall, a broom, or any piece
of inorganic matter, was imported ready made into China and took the
side of popular superstition and Taoism against the orthodox belief,
finding that its power lay in the influence on the popular mind of its
doctrine respecting a future state, in contrast to the indifference
of Confucianism. Its pleading for compassion and preservation of life
met a crying need, and but for it the state of things in this respect
would be worse than it is.

Religion, apart from ancestor-worship, does not enter largely
into Chinese life. There is none of the real 'love of God' found,
for example, in the fervent as distinguished from the conventional
Christian. And as ancestor-worship gradually loses its hold and dies
out agnosticism will take its place.


Superstitions

An almost infinite variety of superstitious practices, due to the
belief in the good or evil influences of departed spirits, exists in
all parts of China. Days are lucky or unlucky. Eclipses are due to a
dragon trying to eat the sun or the moon. The rainbow is supposed to be
the result of a meeting between the impure vapours of the sun and the
earth. Amulets are worn, and charms hung up, sprigs of artemisia or
of peach-blossom are placed near beds and over lintels respectively,
children and adults are 'locked to life' by means of locks on chains
or cords worn round the neck, old brass mirrors are supposed to cure
insanity, figures of gourds, tigers' claws, or the unicorn are worn
to ensure good fortune or ward off sickness, fire, etc., spells of
many kinds, composed mostly of the written characters for happiness
and longevity, are worn, or written on paper, cloth, leaves, etc.,
and burned, the ashes being made into a decoction and drunk by the
young or sick.

Divination by means of the divining stalks (the divining plant,
milfoil or yarrow) and the tortoiseshell has been carried on from
time immemorial, but was not originally practised with the object of
ascertaining future events, but in order to decide doubts, much as
lots are drawn or a coin tossed in the West. _Fêng-shui_, "the art of
adapting the residence of the living and the dead so as to co-operate
and harmonize with the local currents of the cosmic breath" (the _yin_
and the _yang_: see Chapter III), a doctrine which had its root in
ancestor-worship, has exercised an enormous influence on Chinese
thought and life from the earliest times, and especially from those
of Chu Hsi and other philosophers of the Sung dynasty.


Knowledge

Having noted that Chinese education was mainly literary, and why it
was so, it is easy to see that there would be little or no demand
for the kind of knowledge classified in the West under the head of
science. In so far as any demand existed, it did so, at any rate at
first, only because it subserved vital needs. Thus, astronomy, or more
properly astrology, was studied in order that the calendar might be
regulated, and so the routine of agriculture correctly followed, for
on that depended the people's daily rice, or rather, in the beginning,
the various fruits and kinds of flesh which constituted their means of
sustentation before their now universal food was known. In philosophy
they have had two periods of great activity, the first beginning with
Lao Tzu and Confucius in the sixth century B.C. and ending with the
Burning of the Books by the First Emperor, Shih Huang Ti, in 213 B.C.;
the second beginning with Chou Tzu (A.D. 1017-73) and ending with Chu
Hsi (1130-1200). The department of philosophy in the imperial library
contained in 190 B.C. 2705 volumes by 137 authors. There can be no
doubt that this zeal for the orthodox learning, combined with the
literary test for office, was the reason why scientific knowledge was
prevented from developing; so much so, that after four thousand or more
years of national life we find, during the Manchu Period, which ended
the monarchical _régime_, few of the educated class, giants though they
were in knowledge of all departments of their literature and history
(the continuity of their traditions laid down in their twenty-four
Dynastic Annals has been described as one of the great wonders of the
world), with even the elementary scientific learning of a schoolboy
in the West. 'Crude,' 'primitive,' 'mediocre,' 'vague,' 'inaccurate,'
'want of analysis and generalization,' are terms we find applied to
their knowledge of such leading sciences as geography, mathematics,
chemistry, botany, and geology. Their medicine was much hampered
by superstition, and perhaps more so by such beliefs as that the
seat of the intellect is in the stomach, that thoughts proceed from
the heart, that the pit of the stomach is the seat of the breath,
that the soul resides in the liver, etc.--the result partly of the
idea that dissection of the body would maim it permanently during
its existence in the Otherworld. What progress was made was due to
European instruction; and this again is the _causa causans_ of the
great wave of progress in scientific and philosophical knowledge
which is rolling over the whole country and will have marked effects
on the history of the world during the coming century.


Language

Originally polysyllabic, the Chinese language later assumed a
monosyllabic, isolating, uninflected form, grammatical relations
being indicated by position. From the earliest forms of speech several
subordinate vernacular languages arose in various districts, and from
these sprang local dialects, etc. Tone-distinctions arose--_i.e._
the same words pronounced with a different intonation came to
mean different things. Development of these distinctions led to
carelessness of articulation, and multiplication of what would be
homonyms but for these tones. It is incorrect to assume that the tones
were invented to distinguish similar sounds. So that, at the present
day, anyone who says _ma_ will mean either an exclamation, hemp,
horse, or curse according to the quality he gives to the sound. The
language remains in a primitive state, without inflexion, declension,
or distinction of parts of speech. The order in a sentence is: subject,
verb, complement direct, complement indirect. Gender is formed by
distinctive particles; number by prefixing numerals, etc.; cases
by position or appropriate prepositions. Adjectives precede nouns;
position determines comparison; and absence of punctuation causes
ambiguity. The latter is now introduced into most newly published
works. The new education is bringing with it innumerable words and
phrases not found in the old literature or dictionaries. Japanese
idioms which are now being imported into the language are making it
less pure.

The written language, too well known to need detailed description, a
thing of beauty and a joy for ever to those able to appreciate it, said
to have taken originally the form of knotted cords and then of notches
on wood (though this was more probably the origin of numeration than of
writing proper), took later that of rude outlines of natural objects,
and then went on to the phonetic system, under which each character is
composed of two parts, the radical, indicating the meaning, and the
phonetic, indicating the sound. They were symbols, non-agglutinative
and non-inflexional, and were written in vertical columns, probably
from having in early times been painted or cut on strips of bark.


Achievements of the Chinese

As the result of all this fitful fever during so many centuries,
we find that the Chinese, after having lived in nests "in order to
avoid the animals," and then in caves, have built themselves houses
and palaces which are still made after the pattern of their prototype,
with a flat wall behind, the openings in front, the walls put in after
the pillars and roof-tree have been fixed, and out-buildings added on
as side extensions. The _k'ang_, or 'stove-bed' (now a platform made
of bricks), found all over the northern provinces, was a place scooped
out of the side of the cave, with an opening underneath in which (as
now) a fire was lit in winter. Windows and shutters opened upward,
being a survival of the mat or shade hung in front of the apertures
in the walls of the primitive cave-dwelling. Four of these buildings
facing each other round a square made the courtyard, and one or more
courtyards made the compound. They have fed themselves on almost
everything edible to be found on, under, or above land or water,
except milk, but live chiefly on rice, chicken, fish, vegetables,
including garlic, and tea, though at one time they ate flesh and
drank wine, sometimes to excess, before tea was cultivated. They
have clothed themselves in skins and feathers, and then in silks
and satins, but mostly in cotton, and hardly ever in wool. Under
the Manchu _régime_ the type of dress adopted was that of this
horse-riding race, showing the chief characteristics of that noble
animal, the broad sleeves representing the hoofs, the queue the mane,
etc. This queue was formed of the hair growing from the back part
of the scalp, the front of which was shaved. Unlike the Egyptians,
they did not wear wigs. They have nearly always had the decency to
wear their coats long, and have despised the Westerner for wearing
his too short. They are now paradoxical enough to make the mistake
of adopting the Westerner's costume.

They have made to themselves great canals, bridges, aqueducts, and
the longest wall there has ever been on the face of the earth (which
could not be seen from the moon, as some sinologists have erroneously
supposed, any more than a hair, however long, could be seen at a
distance of a hundred yards). They have made long and wide roads, but
failed to keep them in repair during the last few centuries, though
much zeal, possibly due to commerce on oil- or electricity-driven
wheels, is now being shown in this direction. They have built honorary
portals to chaste widows, pagodas, and arched bridges of great beauty,
not forgetting to surround each city with a high and substantial wall
to keep out unfriendly people. They have made innumerable implements
and weapons, from pens and fans and chopsticks to ploughs and carts
and ships; from fiery darts, 'flame elephants,' bows and spears,
spiked chariots, battering-rams, and hurling-engines to mangonels,
trebuchets, matchlocks of wrought iron and plain bore with long
barrels resting on a stock, and gingals fourteen feet long resting on
a tripod, cuirasses of quilted cotton cloth covered with brass knobs,
and helmets of iron or polished steel, sometimes inlaid, with neck-
and ear-lappets. And they have been content not to improve upon these
to any appreciable extent; but have lately shown a tendency to make
the later patterns imported from the West in their own factories.

They have produced one of the greatest and most remarkable
accumulations of literature the world has ever seen, and the finest
porcelain; some music, not very fine; and some magnificent painting,
though hardly any sculpture, and little architecture that will live.



CHAPTER II

On Chinese Mythology


Mythology and Intellectual Progress

The Manichæst, _yin-yang_ (dualist), idea of existence, to which
further reference will be made in the next chapter, finds its
illustration in the dual life, real and imaginary, of all the
peoples of the earth. They have both real histories and mythological
histories. In the preceding chapter I have dealt briefly with the
first--the life of reality--in China from the earliest times to the
present day; the succeeding chapters are concerned with the second--the
life of imagination. A survey of the first was necessary for a complete
understanding of the second. The two react upon each other, affecting
the national character and through it the history of the world.

Mythology is the science of the unscientific man's explanation
of what we call the Otherworld--itself and its denizens, their
mysterious habits and surprising actions both there and here, usually
including the creation of this world also. By the Otherworld he does
not necessarily mean anything distant or even invisible, though the
things he explains would mostly be included by us under those terms. In
some countries myths are abundant, in others scarce. Why should this
be? Why should some peoples tell many and marvellous tales about their
gods and others say little about them, though they may say a great deal
to them? We recall the 'great' myths of Greece and Scandinavia. Other
races are 'poor' in myths. The difference is to be explained by the
mental characters of the peoples as moulded by their surroundings and
hereditary tendencies. The problem is of course a psychological one,
for it is, as already noted, in imagination that myths have their
root. Now imagination grows with each stage of intellectual progress,
for intellectual progress implies increasing representativeness of
thought. In the lower stages of human development imagination is feeble
and unproductive; in the highest stages it is strong and constructive.


The Chinese Intellect

The Chinese are not unimaginative, but their minds did not go on to the
construction of any myths which should be world-great and immortal;
and one reason why they did not construct such myths was that their
intellectual progress was arrested at a comparatively early stage. It
was arrested because there was not that contact and competition
with other peoples which demands brain-work of an active kind as the
alternative of subjugation, inferiority, or extinction, and because,
as we have already seen, the knowledge required of them was mainly
the parrot-like repetition of the old instead of the thinking-out of
the new [1]--a state of things rendered possible by the isolation
just referred to. Confucius discountenanced discussion about the
supernatural, and just as it is probable that the exhortations of Wên
Wang, the virtual founder of the Chou dynasty (1121-255 B.C.), against
drunkenness, in a time before tea was known to them, helped to make
the Chinese the sober people that they are, so it is probable--more
than probable--that this attitude of Confucius may have nipped in
the bud much that might have developed a vigorous mythology, though
for a reason to be stated later it may be doubted if he thereby
deprived the world of any beautiful and marvellous results of the
highest flights of poetical creativeness. There are times, such as
those of any great political upheaval, when human nature will assert
itself and break through its shackles in spite of all artificial
or conventional restraints. Considering the enormous influence of
Confucianism throughout the latter half of Chinese history--_i.e._
the last two thousand years--it is surprising that the Chinese dared
to think about supernatural matters at all, except in the matter of
propitiating their dead ancestors. That they did so is evidence not
only of human nature's inherent tendency to tell stories, but also
of the irrepressible strength of feeling which breaks all laws and
commandments under great stimulus. On the opposing unæsthetic side
this may be compared to the feeling which prompts the unpremeditated
assassination of a man who is guilty of great injustice, even though
it be certain that in due course he would have met his deserts at
the hands of the public executioner.


The Influence of Religion

Apart from this, the influence of Confucianism would have been even
greater than it was, but for the imperial partiality periodically
shown for rival doctrines, such as Buddhism and Taoism, which threw
their weight on the side of the supernatural, and which at times
were exalted to such great heights as to be officially recognized as
State religions. These, Buddhism especially, appealed to the popular
imagination and love of the marvellous. Buddhism spoke of the future
state and the nature of the gods in no uncertain tones. It showed
men how to reach the one and attain to the other. Its founder was
virtuous; his commandments pure and life-sustaining. It supplied in
great part what Confucianism lacked. And, as in the fifth and sixth
centuries A.D., when Buddhism and Taoism joined forces and a working
union existed between them, they practically excluded for the time
all the "chilly growth of Confucian classicism."

Other opponents of myth, including a critical philosopher of great
ability, we shall have occasion to notice presently.


History and Myth

The sobriety and accuracy of Chinese historians is proverbial. I
have dilated upon this in another work, and need add here only what
I inadvertently omitted there--a point hitherto unnoticed or at least
unremarked--that the very word for history in Chinese (_shih_) means
impartiality or an impartial annalist. It has been said that where
there is much myth there is little history, and _vice versa_, and
though this may not be universally true, undoubtedly the persistently
truthful recording of facts, events, and sayings, even at the risk
of loss, yea, and actual loss of life of the historian as the result
of his refusal to make false entries in his chronicle at the bidding
of the emperor (as in the case of the historiographers of Ch'i in
547 B.C.), indicates a type of mind which would require some very
strong stimulus to cause it to soar very far into the hazy realms of
fanciful imagination.


Chinese Rigidity

A further cause, already hinted at above, for the arrest of
intellectual progress is to be found in the growth of the nation
in size during many centuries of isolation from the main stream
of world-civilization, without that increase in heterogeneity
which comes from the moulding by forces external to itself. "As
iron sharpeneth iron, so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his
friend." Consequently we find China what is known to sociology as an
'aggregate of the first order,' which during its evolution has parted
with its internal life-heat without absorbing enough from external
sources to enable it to retain the plastic condition necessary to
further, or at least rapid, development. It is in a state of rigidity,
a state recognized and understood by the sociologist in his study of
the evolution of nations.


The Prerequisites to Myth

But the mere increase of constructive imagination is not sufficient
to produce myth. If it were, it would be reasonable to argue that
as intellectual progress goes on myths become more numerous, and the
greater the progress the greater the number of myths. This we do not
find. In fact, if constructive imagination went on increasing without
the intervention of any further factor, there need not necessarily be
any myth at all. We might almost say that the reverse is the case. We
connect myth with primitive folk, not with the greatest philosophers
or the most advanced nations--not, that is, with the most advanced
stages of national progress wherein constructive imagination makes
the nation great and strong. In these stages the philosopher studies
or criticizes myth, he does not make it.

In order that there may be myth, three further conditions must be
fulfilled. There must, as we have seen, be constructive imagination,
but, nevertheless, there must not be too much of it. As stated above,
mythology, or rather myth, is the _unscientific_ man's explanation. If
the constructive imagination is so great that it becomes self-critical,
if the story-teller doubts his own story, if, in short, his mind is
scientific enough to see that his explanation is no explanation at all,
then there can be no myth properly so called. As in religion, unless
the myth-maker believes in his myth with all his heart and soul and
strength, and each new disciple, as it is cared for and grows under
his hands during the course of years, holds that he must put his shoes
from off his feet because the place whereon he treads is holy ground,
the faith will not be propagated, for it will lack the vital spark
which alone can make it a living thing.


Stimulus Necessary

The next condition is that there must be a stimulus. It is not ideas,
but feelings, which govern the world, and in the history of mythology
where feeling is absent we find either weak imitation or repetition
of the myths of other peoples (though this must not be confused
with certain elements which seem to be common to the myths of all
races), or concoction, contamination, or "genealogical tree-making,"
or myths originated by "leisurely, peaceful tradition" and lacking
the essential qualities which appeal to the human soul and make their
possessors very careful to preserve them among their most loved and
valued treasures. But, on the other hand, where feeling is stirred,
where the requisite stimulus exists, where the people are in great
danger, or allured by the prize of some breathless adventure, the
contact produces the spark of divine poetry, the myths are full of
artistic, philosophic, and religious suggestiveness, and have abiding
significance and charm. They are the children, the poetic fruit, of
great labour and serious struggles, revealing the most fundamental
forces, hopes, and cravings of the human soul. Nations highly strung,
undergoing strenuous emotion, intensely energized by constant conflict
with other nations, have their imagination stimulated to exceptional
poetic creativeness. The background of the Danaïds is Egyptian,
not Greek, but it was the danger in which the Greeks were placed in
their wars with the sons of the land of the Pharaohs that stimulated
the Greek imagination to the creation of that great myth.

This explains why so many of the greatest myths have their staging,
not in the country itself whose treasured possessions they are, but
where that country is 'playing the great game,' is carrying on wars
decisive of far-reaching national events, which arouse to the greatest
pitch of excitement the feelings both of the combatants and of those
who are watching them from their homes. It is by such great events,
not by the romance-writer in his peaceful study, that mythology, like
literature, is "incisively determined." Imagination, we saw, goes
_pari passu_ with intellectual progress, and intellectual progress,
in early times, is furthered not so much by the mere contact as
by the actual conflict of nations. And we see also that myths may,
and very frequently do, have a character quite different from that
of the nation to which they appertain, for environment plays a most
important part both in their inception and subsequent growth--a truth
too obvious to need detailed elaboration.


Persistent Soul-expression

A third condition is that the type of imagination must be persistent
through fairly long periods of time, otherwise not only will there
be an absence of sufficient feeling or momentum to cause the myths
to be repeated and kept alive and transmitted to posterity, but the
inducement to add to them and so enable them to mature and become
complete and finished off and sufficiently attractive to appeal to
the human mind in spite of the foreign character they often bear will
be lacking. In other words, myths and legends grow. They resemble not
so much the narrative of the story-teller or novelist as a gradually
developing art like music, or a body of ideas like philosophy. They
are human and natural, though they express the thought not of any one
individual mind, but of the folk-soul, exemplifying in poetical form
some great psychological or physiographical truth.


The Character of Chinese Myth

The nature of the case thus forbids us to expect to find the Chinese
myths exhibiting the advanced state and brilliant heterogeneity of
those which have become part of the world's permanent literature. We
must expect them to be true to type and conditions, as we expect the
other ideas of the Chinese to be, and looking for them in the light
of this knowledge we shall find them just where we should expect to
find them.

The great sagas and eddas exalted among the world's literary
masterpieces, and forming part of the very life of a large number of
its inhabitants, are absent in China. "The Chinese people," says one
well-known sinologist, "are not prone to mythological invention." "He
who expects to find in Tibet," says another writer, "the poetical
charm of Greek or Germanic mythology will be disappointed. There is
a striking poverty of imagination in all the myths and legends. A
great monotony pervades them all. Many of their stories, taken from
the sacred texts, are quite puerile and insipid. It may be noted
that the Chinese mythology labours under the same defect." And
then there comes the crushing judgment of an over-zealous Christian
missionary sinologist: "There is no hierarchy of gods brought in to
rule and inhabit the world they made, no conclave on Mount Olympus,
nor judgment of the mortal soul by Osiris, no transfer of human love
and hate, passions and hopes, to the powers above; all here is ascribed
to disembodied agencies or principles, and their works are represented
as moving on in quiet order. There is no religion [!], no imagination;
all is impassible, passionless, uninteresting.... It has not, as in
Greece and Egypt, been explained in sublime poetry, shadowed forth in
gorgeous ritual and magnificent festivals, represented in exquisite
sculptures, nor preserved in faultless, imposing fanes and temples,
filled with ideal creations." Besides being incorrect as to many
of its alleged facts, this view would certainly be shown by further
study to be greatly exaggerated.


Periods Fertile in Myth

What we should expect, then, to find from our philosophical study of
the Chinese mind as affected by its surroundings would be barrenness of
constructive imagination, except when birth was given to myth through
the operation of some external agency. And this we do find. The period
of the overthrow of the Yin dynasty and the establishment of the
great house of Chou in 1122 B.C., or of the Wars of the Three States,
for example, in the third century after Christ, a time of terrible
anarchy, a medieval age of epic heroism, sung in a hundred forms of
prose and verse, which has entered as motive into a dozen dramas,
or the advent of Buddhism, which opened up a new world of thought and
life to the simple, sober, peace-loving agricultural folk of China,
were stimuli not by any means devoid of result. In China there are gods
many and heroes many, and the very fact of the existence of so great
a multitude of gods would logically imply a wealth of mythological
lore inseparable from their apotheosis. You cannot--and the Chinese
cannot--get behind reason. A man is not made a god without some
cause being assigned for so important and far-reaching a step; and
in matters of this sort the stated cause is apt to take the form of
a narrative more or less marvellous or miraculous. These resulting
myths may, of course, be born and grow at a later time than that
in which the circumstances giving rise to them took place, but,
if so, that merely proves the persistent power of the originating
stimulus. That in China these narratives always or often reach the
highest flights of constructive imagination is not maintained--the
maintenance of that argument would indeed be contradictory; but even
in those countries where the mythological garden has produced some of
the finest flowers millions of seeds must have been sown which either
did not spring up at all or at least failed to bring forth fruit. And
in the realm of mythology it is not only those gods who sit in the
highest seats--creators of the world or heads of great religions--who
dominate mankind; the humbler, though often no less powerful gods
or spirits--those even who run on all fours and live in holes in the
ground, or buzz through the air and have their thrones in the shadow
of a leaf--have often made a deeper impress on the minds and in the
hearts of the people, and through that impress, for good or evil, have,
in greater or less degree, modified the life of the visible universe.


Sources of Chinese Myth

"So, if we ask whence comes the heroic and the romantic, which supplies
the story-teller's stock-in-trade, the answer is easy. The legends and
history of early China furnish abundance of material for them. To the
Chinese mind their ancient world was crowded with heroes, fairies, and
devils, who played their part in the mixed-up drama, and left a name
and fame both remarkable and piquant. Every one who is familiar with
the ways and the language of the people knows that the country is full
of common objects to which poetic names have been given, and with many
of them there is associated a legend or a myth. A deep river's gorge is
called 'the Blind Man's Pass,' because a peculiar bit of rock, looked
at from a certain angle, assumes the outline of the human form, and
there comes to be connected therewith a pleasing story which reaches
its climax in the petrifaction of the hero. A mountain's crest shaped
like a swooping eagle will from some one have received the name of
'Eagle Mountain,' whilst by its side another shaped like a couchant
lion will have a name to match. There is no lack of poetry among the
people, and most striking objects claim a poetic name, and not a few
of them are associated with curious legends. It is, however, to their
national history that the story-teller goes for his most interesting
subjects, and as the so-called history of China imperceptibly passes
into the legendary period, and this again fades into the mythical,
and as all this is assuredly believed by the masses of the people,
it is obvious that in the national life of China there is no dearth
of heroes whose deeds of prowess will command the rapt attention of
the crowds who listen." [2]

The soul in China is everywhere in evidence, and if myths have "first
and foremost to do with the life of the soul" it would appear strange
that the Chinese, having spiritualized everything from a stone to the
sky, have not been creative of myth. Why they have not the foregoing
considerations show us clearly enough. We must take them and their
myths as we find them. Let us, then, note briefly the result of their
mental workings as reacted on by their environment.


Phases of Chinese Myth

We cannot identify the earliest mythology of the Chinese with that of
any primitive race. The myths, if any, of their place of origin may
have faded and been forgotten in their slow migration eastward. We
cannot say that when they came from the West (which they probably
did) they brought their myths with them, for in spite of certain
conjectural derivations from Babylon we do not find them possessed
of any which we can identify as imported by them at that time. But
research seems to have gone at least as far as this--namely, that
while we cannot say that Chinese myth was derived from Indian myth,
there is good reason to believe that Chinese and Indian myth had a
common origin, which was of course outside of China.

To set forth in detail the various phases through which Chinese myth
has passed would involve a technical description foreign to the purpose
of a popular work. It will sufficiently serve our present purpose to
outline its most prominent features.

In the earliest times there was an 'age of magic' followed by an
'heroic age,' but myths were very rare before 800 B.C., and what is
known as primitive mythology is said to have been invented or imitated
from foreign sources after 820 B.C. In the eighth century B.C. myths
of an astrological character began to attract attention. In the age
of Lao Tzu (604 B.C.), the reputed founder of the Taoist religion,
fresh legends appear, though Lao Tzu himself, absorbed in the abstract,
records none. Neither did Confucius (551-479 B.C.) nor Mencius, who
lived two hundred years later, add any legends to history. But in the
Period of the Warring States (500-100 B.C.) fresh stimuli and great
emotion prompted to mythological creation.


Tso-ch'iu Ming and Lieh Tzu

Tso-ch'iu Ming, commentator on Confucius's _Annals_, frequently
introduced legend into his history. Lieh Tzu (fifth and fourth
centuries B.C.), a metaphysician, is one of the earliest authors who
deal in myths. He is the first to mention the story of Hsi Wang Mu, the
Western Queen, and from his day onward the fabulists have vied with one
another in fantastic descriptions of the wonders of her fairyland. He
was the first to mention the islands of the immortals in the ocean,
the kingdoms of the dwarfs and giants, the fruit of immortality, the
repairing of the heavens by Nü Kua Shih with five-coloured stones,
and the great tortoise which supports the universe.


The T'ang and Sung Epochs

Religious romance began at this time. The T'ang epoch (A.B. 618-907)
was one of the resurrection of the arts of peace after a long period of
dissension. A purer and more enduring form of intellect was gradually
overcoming the grosser but less solid superstition. Nevertheless the
intellectual movement which now manifested itself was not strong
enough to prevail against the powers of mythological darkness. It
was reserved for the scholars of the Sung Period (A.D. 960-1280)
to carry through to victory a strong and sustained offensive against
the spiritualistic obsessions which had weighed upon the Chinese mind
more or less persistently from the Han Period (206 B.C.-A.D. 221)
onward. The dogma of materialism was specially cultivated at this
time. The struggle of sober reason against superstition or imaginative
invention was largely a struggle of Confucianism against Taoism. Though
many centuries had elapsed since the great Master walked the earth,
the anti-myth movement of the T'ang and Sung Periods was in reality the
long arm and heavy fist of Confucius emphasizing a truer rationalism
than that of his opponents and denouncing the danger of leaving the
firm earth to soar into the unknown hazy regions of fantasy. It was
Sung scholarship that gave the death-blow to Chinese mythology.

It is unnecessary to labour the point further, because after the Sung
epoch we do not meet with any period of new mythological creation,
and its absence can be ascribed to no other cause than its defeat at
the hands of the Sung philosophers. After their time the tender plant
was always in danger of being stunted or killed by the withering blast
of philosophical criticism. Anything in the nature of myth ascribable
to post-Sung times can at best be regarded only as a late blossom
born when summer days are past.


Myth and Doubt

It will bear repetition to say that unless the myth-builder firmly
believes in his myth, be he the layer of the foundation-stone or one
of the raisers of the superstructure, he will hardly make it a living
thing. Once he believes in reincarnation and the suspension of natural
laws, the boundless vistas of space and the limitless æons of time are
opened to him. He can perform miracles which astound the world. But
if he allow his mind to inquire, for instance, why it should have been
necessary for Elijah to part the waters of the Jordan with his garment
in order that he and Elisha might pass over dryshod, or for Bodhidharma
to stand on a reed to cross the great Yangtzu River, or for innumerable
Immortals to sit on 'favourable clouds' to make their journeys through
space, he spoils myth--his child is stillborn or does not survive to
maturity. Though the growth of philosophy and decay of superstition
may be good for a nation, the process is certainly conducive to the
destruction of its myth and much of its poetry. The true mythologist
takes myth for myth, enters into its spirit, and enjoys it.

We may thus expect to find in the realm of Chinese mythology a large
number of little hills rather than a few great mountains, but the
little hills are very good ones after their kind; and the object of
this work is to present Chinese myth as it is, not as it might have
been had the universe been differently constituted. Nevertheless, if,
as we may rightly do, we judge of myth by the sentiments pervading
it and the ideals upheld and taught by it, we shall find that Chinese
myth must be ranked among the greatest.


Myth and Legend

The general principles considered above, while they explain the paucity
of myth in China, explain also the abundance of legend there. The six
hundred years during which the Mongols, Mings, and Manchus sat upon
the throne of China are barren of myth, but like all periods of the
Chinese national life are fertile in legend. And this chiefly for the
reason that myths are more general, national, divine, while legends are
more local, individual, human. And since, in China as elsewhere, the
lower classes are as a rule less educated and more superstitious than
the upper classes--have a certain amount of constructive imagination,
but not enough to be self-critical--legends, rejected or even ridiculed
by the scholarly class when their knowledge has become sufficiently
scientific, continue to be invented and believed in by the peasant and
the dweller in districts far from the madding crowd long after myth,
properly so called, has exhaled its last breath.



CHAPTER III

Cosmogony-p'an Ku and the Creation Myth


The Fashioner of the Universe

The most conspicuous figure in Chinese cosmogony is P'an Ku. He it was
who chiselled the universe out of Chaos. According to Chinese ideas,
he was the offspring of the original dual powers of Nature, the _yin_
and the _yang_ (to be considered presently), which, having in some
incomprehensible way produced him, set him the task of giving form
to Chaos and "making the heavens and the earth."

Some accounts describe him as the actual creator of the universe--"the
ancestor of Heaven and earth and all that live and move and have their
being." 'P'an' means 'the shell of an egg,' and 'Ku' 'to secure,'
'solid,' referring to P'an Ku being hatched from out of Chaos and
to his settling the arrangement of the causes to which his origin
was due. The characters themselves may, however, mean nothing more
than 'Researches into antiquity,' though some bolder translators
have assigned to them the significance if not the literal sense of
'aboriginal abyss,' or the Babylonian Tiamat, 'the Deep.'

P'an Ku is pictured as a man of dwarfish stature clothed in bearskin,
or merely in leaves or with an apron of leaves. He has two horns on
his head. In his right hand he holds a hammer and in his left a chisel
(sometimes these are reversed), the only implements he used in carrying
out his great task. Other pictures show him attended in his labours
by the four supernatural creatures--the unicorn, phoenix, tortoise,
and dragon; others again with the sun in one hand and the moon in the
other, some of the firstfruits of his stupendous labours. (The reason
for these being there will be apparent presently.) His task occupied
eighteen thousand years, during which he formed the sun, moon, and
stars, the heavens and the earth, himself increasing in stature day
by day, being daily six feet taller than the day before, until, his
labours ended, he died that his works might live. His head became the
mountains, his breath the wind and clouds, his voice the thunder,
his limbs the four quarters of the earth, his blood the rivers,
his flesh the soil, his beard the constellations, his skin and hair
the herbs and trees, his teeth, bones, and marrow the metals, rocks,
and precious stones, his sweat the rain, and the insects creeping
over his body human beings, who thus had a lowlier origin even than
the tears of Khepera in Egyptian cosmology. [3]

This account of P'an Ku and his achievements is of Taoist origin. The
Buddhists have given a somewhat different account of him, which is
a late adaptation from the Taoist myth, and must not be mistaken for
Buddhist cosmogony proper. [4]


The Sun and the Moon

In some of the pictures of P'an Ku he is represented, as already noted,
as holding the sun in one hand and the moon in the other. Sometimes
they are in the form of those bodies, sometimes in the classic
character. The legend says that when P'an Ku put things in order in
the lower world, he did not put these two luminaries in their proper
courses, so they retired into the Han Sea, and the people dwelt in
darkness. The Terrestrial Emperor sent an officer, Terrestrial Time,
with orders that they should come forth and take their places in
the heavens and give the world day and night. They refused to obey
the order. They were reported to Ju Lai; P'an Ku was called, and,
at the divine direction of Buddha, wrote the character for 'sun'
in his left hand, and that for 'moon' in his right hand; and went to
the Han Sea, and stretched forth his left hand and called the sun,
and then stretched forth his right hand and called the moon, at the
same time repeating a charm devoutly seven times; and they forthwith
ascended on high, and separated time into day and night. [5]

Other legends recount that P'an Ku had the head of a dragon and
the body of a serpent; and that by breathing he caused the wind,
by opening his eyes he created day, his voice made the thunder, etc.


P'an Ku and Ymer

Thus we have the heavens and the earth fashioned by this wonderful
being in eighteen thousand years. With regard to him we may adapt
the Scandinavian ballad:


    It was Time's morning
    When P'an Ku lived;
    There was no sand, no sea,
    Nor cooling billows;



    Earth there was none,
    No lofty Heaven;
    No spot of living green;
    Only a deep profound.


And it is interesting to note, in passing, the similarity between this
Chinese artificer of the universe and Ymer, the giant, who discharges
the same functions in Scandinavian mythology. Though P'an Ku did not
have the same kind of birth nor meet with the violent death of the
latter, the results as regards the origin of the universe seem to
have been pretty much the same. [6]


P'an Ku a Late Creation

But though the Chinese creation myth deals with primeval things it
does not itself belong to a primitive time. According to some writers
whose views are entitled to respect, it was invented during the fourth
century A.D. by the Taoist recluse, Magistrate Ko Hung, author of the
_Shên hsien chuan_ (_Biographies of the Gods_). The picturesque person
of P'an Ku is said to have been a concession to the popular dislike
of, or inability to comprehend, the abstract. He was conceived, some
Chinese writers say, because the philosophical explanations of the
Cosmos were too recondite for the ordinary mind to grasp. That he
did fulfil the purpose of furnishing the ordinary mind with a fairly
easily comprehensible picture of the creation may be admitted; but,
as will presently be seen, it is over-stating the case to say that he
was conceived with the set purpose of furnishing the ordinary mind with
a concrete solution or illustration of this great problem. There is
no evidence that P'an Ku had existed as a tradition before the time
when we meet with the written account of him; and, what is more,
there is no evidence that there existed any demand on the part of
the popular mind for any such solution or illustration. The ordinary
mind would seem to have been either indifferent to or satisfied
with the abstruse cosmogonical and cosmological theories of the
early sages for at least a thousand years. The cosmogonies of the _I
ching_, of Lao Tzu, Confucius (such as it was), Kuan Tzu, Mencius,
Chuang Tzu, were impersonal. P'an Ku and his myth must be regarded
rather as an accident than as a creation resulting from any sudden
flow of psychological forces or wind of discontent ruffling the
placid Chinese mind. If the Chinese brought with them from Babylon
or anywhere else the elements of a cosmogony, whether of a more or
less abstruse scientific nature or a personal mythological narrative,
it must have been subsequently forgotten or at least has not survived
in China. But for Ko Hung's eccentricity and his wish to experiment
with cinnabar from Cochin-China in order to find the elixir of life,
P'an Ku would probably never have been invented, and the Chinese mind
would have been content to go on ignoring the problem or would have
quietly acquiesced in the abstract philosophical explanations of the
learned which it did not understand. Chinese cosmogony would then
have consisted exclusively of the recondite impersonal metaphysics
which the Chinese mind had entertained or been fed on for the nine
hundred or more years preceding the invention of the P'an Ku myth.


Nü Kua Shih, the Repairer of the Heavens

It is true that there exist one or two other explanations of the
origin of things which introduce a personal creator. There is,
for instance, the legend--first mentioned by Lieh Tzu (to whom we
shall revert later)--which represents Nü Kua Shih (also called Nü
Wa and Nü Hsi), said to have been the sister and successor of Fu
Hsi, the mythical sovereign whose reign is ascribed to the years
2953-2838 B.C., as having been the creator of human beings when
the earth first emerged from Chaos. She (or he, for the sex seems
uncertain), who had the "body of a serpent and head of an ox" (or a
human head and horns of an ox, according to some writers), "moulded
yellow earth and made man." Ssu-ma Chêng, of the eighth century A.D.,
author of the _Historical Records_ and of another work on the three
great legendary emperors, Fu Hsi, Shên Nung, and Huang Ti, gives
the following account of her: "Fu Hsi was succeeded by Nü Kua, who
like him had the surname Fêng. Nü Kua had the body of a serpent and
a human head, with the virtuous endowments of a divine sage. Toward
the end of her reign there was among the feudatory princes Kung Kung,
whose functions were the administration of punishment. Violent and
ambitious, he became a rebel, and sought by the influence of water
to overcome that of wood [under which Nü Kua reigned]. He did battle
with Chu Jung [said to have been one of the ministers of Huang Ti,
and later the God of Fire], but was not victorious; whereupon he
struck his head against the Imperfect Mountain, Pu Chou Shan, and
brought it down. The pillars of Heaven were broken and the corners of
the earth gave way. Hereupon Nü Kua melted stones of the five colours
to repair the heavens, and cut off the feet of the tortoise to set
upright the four extremities of the earth. [7] Gathering the ashes
of reeds she stopped the flooding waters, and thus rescued the land
of Chi, Chi Chou [the early seat of the Chinese sovereignty]."

Another account separates the name and makes Nü and Kua brother
and sister, describing them as the only two human beings in
existence. At the creation they were placed at the foot of the K'un-lun
Mountains. Then they prayed, saying, "If thou, O God, hast sent us to
be man and wife, the smoke of our sacrifice will stay in one place;
but if not, it will be scattered." The smoke remained stationary.

But though Nü Kua is said to have moulded the first man (or the first
human beings) out of clay, it is to be noted that, being only the
successor of Fu Hsi, long lines of rulers had preceded her of whom no
account is given, and also that, as regards the heavens and the earth
at least, she is regarded as the repairer and not the creator of them.

Heaven-deaf (T'ien-lung) and Earth-dumb (Ti-ya), the two attendants
of Wên Ch'ang, the God of Literature (see following chapter), have
also been drawn into the cosmogonical net. From their union came the
heavens and the earth, mankind, and all living things.

These and other brief and unelaborated personal cosmogonies, even if
not to be regarded as spurious imitations, certainly have not become
established in the Chinese mind as the explanation of the way in which
the universe came to be: in this sphere the P'an Ku legend reigns
supreme; and, owing to its concrete, easily apprehensible nature,
has probably done so ever since the time of its invention.


Early Cosmogony Dualistic

The period before the appearance of the P'an Ku myth may be divided
into two parts; that from some early unknown date up to about the
middle of the Confucian epoch, say 500 B.C., and that from 500 B.C. to
A.D. 400. We know that during the latter period the minds of Chinese
scholars were frequently occupied with speculations as to the origin
of the universe. Before 500 B.C. we have no documentary remains
telling us what the Chinese believed about the origin of things;
but it is exceedingly unlikely that no theories or speculations at
all concerning the origin of themselves and their surroundings were
formed by this intelligent people during the eighteen centuries or
more which preceded the date at which we find the views held by them
put into written form. It is safe to assume that the dualism which
later occupied their philosophical thoughts to so great an extent
as almost to seem inseparable from them, and exercised so powerful
an influence throughout the course of their history, was not only
formulating itself during that long period, but had gradually reached
an advanced stage. We may even go so far as to say that dualism, or
its beginnings, existed in the very earliest times, for the belief in
the second self or ghost or double of the dead is in reality nothing
else. And we find it operating with apparently undiminished energy
after the Chinese mind had reached its maturity in the Sung dynasty.



The Canon of Changes

The Bible of Chinese dualism is the _I ching_, the _Canon of Changes_
(or _Permutations_). It is held in great veneration both on account
of its antiquity and also because of the "unfathomable wisdom which
is supposed to lie concealed under its mysterious symbols." It is
placed first in the list of the classics, or Sacred Books, though
it is not the oldest of them. When exactly the work itself on which
the subsequent elaborations were founded was composed is not now
known. Its origin is attributed to the legendary emperor Fu Hsi
(2953-2838 B.C.). It does not furnish a cosmogony proper, but merely
a dualistic system as an explanation, or attempted explanation,
or even perhaps orly a record, of the constant changes (in modern
philosophical language the "redistribution of matter and motion")
going on everywhere. That explanation or record was used for purposes
of divination. This dualistic system, by a simple addition, became
a monism, and at the same time furnished the Chinese with a cosmogony.


The Five Elements

The Five Elements or Forces (_wu hsing_)--which, according to
the Chinese, are metal, air, fire, water, and wood--are first
mentioned in Chinese literature in a chapter of the classic _Book
of History_. [8] They play a very important part in Chinese thought:
'elements' meaning generally not so much the actual substances as the
forces essential to human, life. They have to be noticed in passing,
because they were involved in the development of the cosmogonical
ideas which took place in the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D.



Monism

As their imagination grew, it was natural that the Chinese should
begin to ask themselves what, if the _yang_ and the _yin_ by
their permutations produced, or gave shape to, all things, was it
that produced the _yang_ and the _yin_. When we see traces of this
inquisitive tendency we find ourselves on the borderland of dualism
where the transition is taking place into the realm of monism. But
though there may have been a tendency toward monism in early times, it
was only in the Sung dynasty that the philosophers definitely placed
behind the _yang_ and the _yin_ a First Cause--the Grand Origin,
Grand Extreme, Grand Terminus, or Ultimate Ground of Existence. [9]
They gave to it the name _t'ai chi_, and represented it by a concrete
sign, the symbol of a circle. The complete scheme shows the evolution
of the Sixty-four Diagrams (_kua_) from the _t'ai chi_ through the
_yang_ and the _yin_, the Four, Eight, Sixteen, and Thirty-two
Diagrams successively. This conception was the work of the Sung
philosopher Chou Tun-i (A.D. 1017-73), commonly known as Chou Tzu,
and his disciple Chu Hsi (A.D. 1130-1200), known as Chu Tzu or Chu
Fu Tzu, the famous historian and Confucian commentator--two of the
greatest names in Chinese philosophy. It was at this time that the
tide of constructive imagination in China, tinged though it always
was with classical Confucianism, rose to its greatest height. There
is the philosopher's seeking for causes. Yet in this matter of the
First Cause we detect, in the full flood of Confucianism, the potent
influence of Taoist and Buddhist speculations. It has even been said
that the Sung philosophy, which grew, not from the _I ching_ itself,
but from the appendixes to it, is more Taoistic than Confucian. As it
was with the P'an Ku legend, so was it with this more philosophical
cosmogony. The more fertile Taoist and Buddhist imaginations led to the
preservation of what the Confucianists, distrusting the marvellous,
would have allowed to die a natural death. It was, after all, the
mystical foreign elements which gave point to--we may rightly say
rounded off--the early dualism by converting it into monism, carrying
philosophical speculation from the Knowable to the Unknowable, and
furnishing the Chinese with their first scientific theory of the
origin, not of the changes going on in the universe (on which they
had already formed their opinions), but of the universe itself.


Chou Tzu's "T'ai Chi T'u"

Chou Tun-i, appropriately apotheosized as 'Prince in the Empire of
Reason,' completed and systematized the philosophical world-conception
which had hitherto obtained in the Chinese mind. He did not ask his
fellow-countrymen to discard any part of what they had long held in
high esteem: he raised the old theories from the sphere of science to
that of philosophy by unifying them and bringing them to a focus. And
he made this unification intelligible to the Chinese mind by his famous
_T'ai chi t'u_, or Diagram of the Great Origin (or Grand Terminus),
showing that the Grand Original Cause, itself uncaused, produces the
_yang_ and the _yin_, these the Five Elements, and so on, through
the male and female norms (_tao_), to the production of all things.


Chu Hsi's Monistic Philosophy

The writings of Chu Hsi, especially his treatise on _The Immaterial
Principle [li] and Primary Matter [ch'i]_, leave no doubt as to the
monism of his philosophy. In this work occurs the passage: "In the
universe there exists no primary matter devoid of the immaterial
principle; and no immaterial principle apart from primary matter";
and although the two are never separated "the immaterial principle
[as Chou Tzu explains] is what is previous to form, while primary
matter is what is subsequent to form," the idea being that the two
are different manifestations of the same mysterious force from which
all things proceed.

It is unnecessary to follow this philosophy along all the different
branches which grew out of it, for we are here concerned only with
the seed. We have observed how Chinese dualism became a monism, and
how while the monism was established the dualism was retained. It is
this mono-dualistic theory, combining the older and newer philosophy,
which in China, then as now, constitutes the accepted explanation of
the origin of things, of the universe itself and all that it contains.


Lao Tzu's "Tao"

There are other cosmogonies in Chinese philosophy, but they need not
detain us long. Lao Tzu (sixth century B.C.), in his _Tao-tê ching,
The Canon of Reason and Virtue_ (at first entitled simply _Lao Tzu_),
gave to the then existing scattered sporadic conceptions of the
universe a literary form. His _tao_, or 'Way,' is the originator
of Heaven and earth, it is "the mother of all things." His Way,
which was "before God," is but a metaphorical expression for the
manner in which things came at first into being out of the primal
nothingness, and how the phenomena of nature continue to go on,
"in stillness and quietness, without striving or crying." Lao Tzu is
thus so far monistic, but he is also mystical, transcendental, even
pantheistic. The way that can be walked is not the Eternal Way; the
name that can be named is not the Eternal Name. The Unnameable is the
originator of Heaven and earth; manifesting itself as the Nameable,
it is "the mother of all things." "In Eternal Non-Being I see the
Spirituality of Things; in Eternal Being their limitation. Though
different under these two aspects, they are the same in origin;
it is when development takes place that different names have to be
used. It is while they are in the condition of sameness that the
mystery concerning them exists. This mystery is indeed the mystery
of mysteries. It is the door of all spirituality."

This _tao_, indefinable and in its essence unknowable, is "the
fountain-head of all beings, and the norm of all actions. But it is
not only the formative principle of the universe; it also seems to be
primordial matter: chaotic in its composition, born prior to Heaven
and earth, noiseless, formless, standing alone in its solitude, and
not changing, universal in its activity, and unrelaxing, without being
exhausted, it is capable of becoming the mother of the universe." And
there we may leave it. There is no scheme of creation, properly so
called. The Unwalkable Way leads us to nothing further in the way of
a cosmogony.


Confucius's Agnosticism

Confucius (551-479 B.C.) did not throw any light on the problem of
origin. He did not speculate on the creation of things nor the end
of them. He was not troubled to account for the origin of man, nor
did he seek to know about his hereafter. He meddled neither with
physics nor metaphysics. There might, he thought, be something on
the other side of life, for he admitted the existence of spiritual
beings. They had an influence on the living, because they caused
them to clothe themselves in ceremonious dress and attend to the
sacrificial ceremonies. But we should not trouble ourselves about
them, any more than about supernatural things, or physical prowess,
or monstrosities. How can we serve spiritual beings while we do not
know how to serve men? We feel the existence of something invisible
and mysterious, but its nature and meaning are too deep for the
human understanding to grasp. The safest, indeed the only reasonable,
course is that of the agnostic--to leave alone the unknowable, while
acknowledging its existence and its mystery, and to try to understand
knowable phenomena and guide our actions accordingly.

Between the monism of Lao Tzu and the positivism of Confucius on
the one hand, and the landmark of the Taoistic transcendentalism of
Chuang Tzu (fourth and third centuries B.C.) on the other, we find
several "guesses at the riddle of existence" which must be briefly
noted as links in the chain of Chinese speculative thought on this
important subject.


Mo Tzu and Creation

In the philosophy of Mo Ti (fifth and fourth centuries B.C.),
generally known as Mo Tzu or Mu Tzu, the philosopher of humanism and
utilitarianism, we find the idea of creation. It was, he says, Heaven
(which was anthropomorphically regarded by him as a personal Supreme
Being) who "created the sun, moon, and innumerable stars." His system
closely resembles Christianity, but the great power of Confucianism as
a weapon wielded against all opponents by its doughty defender Mencius
(372-289 B.C.) is shown by the complete suppression of the influence
of Mo Tzuism at his hands. He even went so far as to describe Mo Tzu
and those who thought with him as "wild animals."


Mencius and the First Cause

Mencius himself regarded Heaven as the First Cause, or Cause of Causes,
but it was not the same personal Heaven as that of Mo Tzu. Nor does
he hang any cosmogony upon it. His chief concern was to eulogize the
doctrines of the great Confucius, and like him he preferred to let
the origin of the universe look after itself.


Lieh Tzu's Absolute

Lieh Tzu (said to have lived in the fifth century B.C.), one
of the brightest stars in the Taoist constellation, considered
this nameable world as having evolved from an unnameable absolute
being. The evolution did not take place through the direction of
a personal will working out a plan of creation: "In the beginning
there was Chaos [_hun tun_]. It was a mingled potentiality of Form
[_hsing_], Pneuma [_ch'i_], and Substance [_chih_]. A Great Change
[_t'ai i_] took place in it, and there was a Great Starting [_t'ai
ch'u_] which is the beginning of Form. The Great Starting evolved a
Great Beginning [_t'ai shih_], which is the inception of Pneuma. The
Great Beginning was followed by the Great Blank [_t'ai su_], which
is the first formation of Substance. Substance, Pneuma, and Form
being all evolved out of the primordial chaotic mass, this material
world as it lies before us came into existence." And that which
made it possible for Chaos to evolve was the Solitary Indeterminate
(_i tu_ or the _tao_), which is not created, but is able to create
everlastingly. And being both Solitary and Indeterminate it tells us
nothing determinate about itself.


Chuang Tzu's Super-tao

Chuang Chou (fourth and third centuries B.C.), generally known
as Chuang Tzu, the most brilliant Taoist of all, maintained with
Lao Tzu that the universe started from the Nameless, but it was if
possible a more absolute and transcendental Nameless than that of
Lao Tzu. He dwells on the relativity of knowledge; as when asleep he
did not know that he was a man dreaming that he was a butterfly, so
when awake he did not know that he was not a butterfly dreaming that
he was a man. [10] But "all is embraced in the obliterating unity of
the _tao_, and the wise man, passing into the realm of the Infinite,
finds rest therein." And this _tao_, of which we hear so much in
Chinese philosophy, was before the Great Ultimate or Grand Terminus
(_t'ai chi_), and "from it came the mysterious existence of God
[_ti_]. It produced Heaven, it produced earth."


Popular Cosmogony still Personal or Dualistic

These and other cosmogonies which the Chinese have devised, though
it is necessary to note their existence in order to give a just idea
of their cosmological speculations, need not, as I said, detain us
long; and the reason why they need not do so is that, in the matter
of cosmogony, the P'an Ku legend and the _yin-yang_ system with its
monistic elaboration occupy virtually the whole field of the Chinese
mental vision. It is these two--the popular and the scientific--that
we mean when we speak of Chinese cosmogony. Though here and there a
stern sectarian might deny that the universe originated in one or the
other of these two ways, still, the general rule holds good. And I
have dealt with them in this order because, though the P'an Ku legend
belongs to the fourth century A.D., the _I ching_ dualism was not,
rightly speaking, a cosmogony until Chou Tun-i made it one by the
publication of his _T'ai chi t'u_ in the eleventh century A.D. Over
the unscientific and the scientific minds of the Chinese these two
are paramount.

Applying the general principles stated in the preceding chapter,
we find the same cause which operated to restrict the growth of
mythology in general in China operated also in like manner in this
particular branch of it. With one exception Chinese cosmogony is
non-mythological. The careful and studiously accurate historians
(whose work aimed at being _ex veritate_, 'made of truth'), the
sober literature, the vast influence of agnostic, matter-of-fact
Confucianism, supported by the heavy Mencian artillery, are
indisputable indications of a constructive imagination which grew too
quickly and became too rapidly scientific to admit of much soaring
into the realms of fantasy. Unaroused by any strong stimulus in
their ponderings over the riddle of the universe, the sober, plodding
scientists and the calm, truth-loving philosophers gained a peaceful
victory over the mythologists.



CHAPTER IV

The Gods of China


The Birth of the Soul

The dualism noted in the last chapter is well illustrated by the
Chinese pantheon. Whether as the result of the co-operation of the
_yin_ and the _yang_ or of the final dissolution of P'an Ku, human
beings came into existence. To the primitive mind the body and its
shadow, an object and its reflection in water, real life and dream
life, sensibility and insensibility (as in fainting, etc.), suggest the
idea of another life parallel with this life and of the doings of the
'other self' in it. This 'other self,' this spirit, which leaves the
body for longer or shorter intervals in dreams, swoons, death, may
return or be brought back, and the body revive. Spirits which do not
return or are not brought back may cause mischief, either alone, or by
entry into another human or animal body or even an inanimate object,
and should therefore be propitiated. Hence worship and deification.


The Populous Otherworld

The Chinese pantheon has gradually become so multitudinous that there
is scarcely a being or thing which is not, or has not been at some time
or other, propitiated or worshipped. As there are good and evil people
in this world, so there are gods and demons in the Otherworld: we find
a polytheism limited only by a polydemonism. The dualistic hierarchy is
almost all-embracing. To get a clear idea of this populous Otherworld,
of the supernal and infernal hosts and their organizations, it needs
but to imagine the social structure in its main features as it existed
throughout the greater part of Chinese history, and to make certain
additions. The social structure consisted of the ruler, his court,
his civil, military, and ecclesiastical officials, and his subjects
(classed as Scholars--officials and gentry--Agriculturists, Artisans,
and Merchants, in that order).


Worship of Shang Ti

When these died, their other selves continued to exist and to hold
the same rank in the spirit world as they did in this one. The _ti_,
emperor, became the _Shang Ti_, Emperor on High, who dwelt in _T'ien_,
Heaven (originally the great dome). [11] And Shang Ti, the Emperor
on High, was worshipped by _ti_, the emperor here below, in order to
pacify or please him--to ensure a continuance of his benevolence on
his behalf in the world of spirits. Confusion of ideas and paucity
of primitive language lead to personification and worship of a thing
or being in which a spirit has taken up its abode in place of or in
addition to worship of the spirit itself. Thus Heaven (T'ien) itself
came to be personified and worshipped in addition to Shang Ti, the
Emperor who had gone to Heaven, and who was considered as the chief
ruler in the spiritual world. The worship of Shang Ti was in existence
before that of T'ien was introduced. Shang Ti was worshipped by the
emperor and his family as their ancestor, or the head of the hierarchy
of their ancestors. The people could not worship Shang Ti, for to do so
would imply a familiarity or a claim of relationship punishable with
death. The emperor worshipped his ancestors, the officials theirs,
the people theirs. But, in the same way and sense that the people
worshipped the emperor on earth, as the 'father' of the nation,
namely, by adoration and obeisance, so also could they in this way
and this sense worship Shang Ti. An Englishman may take off his hat
as the king passes in the street to his coronation without taking any
part in the official service in Westminster Abbey. So the 'worship'
of Shang Ti by the people was not done officially or with any special
ceremonial or on fixed State occasions, as in the case of the worship
of Shang Ti by the emperor. This, subject to a qualification to be
mentioned later, is really all that is meant (or should be meant)
when it is said that the Chinese worship Shang Ti.

As regards sacrifices to Shang Ti, these could be offered officially
only by the emperor, as High Priest on earth, who was attended or
assisted in the ceremonies by members of his own family or clan or
the proper State officials (often, even in comparatively modern times,
members of the imperial family or clan). In these official sacrifices,
which formed part of the State worship, the people could not take part;
nor did they at first offer sacrifices to Shang Ti in their own homes
or elsewhere. In what way and to what extent they did so later will
be shown presently.


Worship of T'ien

Owing to T'ien, Heaven, the abode of the spirits, becoming personified,
it came to be worshipped not only by the emperor, but by the people
also. But there was a difference between these two worships, because
the emperor performed his worship of Heaven officially at the great
altar of the Temple of Heaven at Peking (in early times at the altar
in the suburb of the capital), whereas the people (continuing always
to worship their ancestors) worshipped Heaven, when they did so
at all--the custom being observed by some and not by others, just
as in Western countries some people go to church, while others stay
away--usually at the time of the New Year, in a simple, unceremonious
way, by lighting some incense-sticks and waving them toward the sky
in the courtyards of their own houses or in the street just outside
their doors.


Confusion of Shang Ti and T'ien

The qualification necessary to the above description is that, as
time went on and especially since the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280),
much confusion arose regarding Shang Ti and T'ien, and thus it came
about that the terms became mixed and their definitions obscure. This
confusion of ideas has prevailed down to the present time. One result
of this is that the people may sometimes state, when they wave their
incense-sticks or light their candles, that their humble sacrifice
is made to Shang Ti, whom in reality they have no right either to
worship or to offer sacrifice to, but whom they may unofficially pay
respect and make obeisance to, as they might and did to the emperor
behind the high boards on the roadsides which shielded him from their
view as he was borne along in his elaborate procession on the few
occasions when he came forth from the imperial city.

Thus we find that, while only the emperor could worship and sacrifice
to Shang Ti, and only he could officially worship and sacrifice to
T'ien, the people who early personified and worshipped T'ien, as
already shown, came, owing to confusion of the meanings of Shang Ti
and T'ien, unofficially to 'worship' both, but only in the sense and to
the extent indicated, and to offer 'sacrifices' to both, also only in
the sense and to the extent indicated. But for these qualifications,
the statement that the Chinese worship and sacrifice to Shang Ti and
T'ien would be apt to convey an incorrect idea.

From this it will be apparent that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler on High,
and T'ien, Heaven (later personified), do not mean 'God' in the sense
that the word is used in the Christian religion. To state that they
do, as so many writers on China have done, without pointing out the
essential differences, is misleading. That Chinese religion was or is
"a monotheistic worship of God" is further disproved by the fact that
Shang Ti and T'ien do not appear in the list of the popular pantheon at
all, though all the other gods are there represented. Neither Shang Ti
nor T'ien mean the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, or the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost of the New Testament. Did they mean this, the
efforts of the Christian missionaries to convert the Chinese would be
largely superfluous. The Christian religion, even the Holy Trinity,
is a monotheism. That the Chinese religion (even though a summary
of extracts from the majority of foreign books on China might point
to its being so) is not a monotheism, but a polytheism or even a
pantheism (as long as that term is taken in the sense of universal
deification and not in that of one spiritual being immanent in all
things), the rest of this chapter will abundantly prove.

There have been three periods in which gods have been created in
unusually large numbers: that of the mythical emperor Hsien Yüan
(2698-2598 B.C.), that of Chiang Tzu-ya (in the twelfth century B.C.),
and that of the first emperor of the Ming dynasty (in the fourteenth
century A.D.).


The Otherworld Similar to this World

The similarity of the Otherworld to this world above alluded to is
well shown by Du Bose in his _Dragon, Image, and, Demon_, from which
I quote the following passages:

"The world of spirits is an exact counterpart of the Chinese Empire,
or, as has been remarked, it is 'China ploughed under'; this is the
world of light; put out the lights and you have Tartarus. China has
eighteen [now twenty-two] provinces, so has Hades; each province has
eight or nine prefects, or departments; so each province in Hades
has eight or nine departments; every prefect or department averages
ten counties, so every department in Hades has ten counties. In
Soochow the Governor, the provincial Treasurer, the Criminal Judge,
the Intendant of Circuit, the Prefect or Departmental Governor, and
the three District Magistrates or County Governors each have temples
with their apotheoses in the other world. Not only these, but every
_yamên_ secretary, runner, executioner, policeman, and constable
has his counterpart in the land of darkness. The market-towns have
also mandarins of lesser rank in charge, besides a host of revenue
collectors, the bureau of government works and other departments,
with several hundred thousand officials, who all rank as gods beyond
the grave. These deities are civilians; the military having a similar
gradation for the armies of Hades, whose captains are gods, and whose
battalions are devils.

"The framers of this wonderful scheme for the spirits of the dead,
having no higher standard, transferred to the authorities of
that world the etiquette, tastes, and venality of their correlate
officials in the Chinese Government, thus making it necessary to
use similar means to appease the one which are found necessary to
move the other. All the State gods have their assistants, attendants,
door-keepers, runners, horses, horsemen, detectives, and executioners,
corresponding in every particular to those of Chinese officials of
the same rank." (Pp. 358-359.)

This likeness explains also why the hierarchy of beings in the
Otherworld concerns itself not only with the affairs of the Otherworld,
but with those of this world as well. So faithful is the likeness
that we find the gods (the term is used in this chapter to include
goddesses, who are, however, relatively few) subjected to many of
the rules and conditions existing on this earth. Not only do they, as
already shown, differ in rank, but they hold _levées_ and audiences
and may be promoted for distinguished services, just as the Chinese
officials are. They "may rise from an humble position to one near the
Pearly Emperor, who gives them the reward of merit for ruling well the
affairs of men. The correlative deities of the mandarins are only of
equal rank, yet the fact that they have been apotheosized makes them
their superiors and fit objects of worship. Chinese mandarins rotate in
office, generally every three years, and then there is a corresponding
change in Hades. The image in the temple remains the same, but the
spirit which dwells in the clay tabernacle changes, so the idol has
a different name, birthday, and tenant. The priests are informed by
the Great Wizard of the Dragon Tiger Mountain, but how can the people
know gods which are not the same to-day as yesterday?" (Pp. 360-361.)

The gods also indulge in amusements, marry, sin, are punished, die,
are resurrected, or die and are transformed, or die finally. [12]


The Three Religions

We have in China the universal worship of ancestors, which constitutes
(or did until A.D. 1912) the State religion, usually known as
Confucianism, and in addition we have the gods of the specific
religions (which also originally took their rise in ancestor-worship),
namely, Buddhism and Taoism. (Other religions, though tolerated,
are not recognized as Chinese religions.) It is with a brief account
of this great hierarchy and its mythology that we will now concern
ourselves.

Besides the ordinary ancestor-worship (as distinct from the State
worship) the people took to Buddhism and Taoism, which became
the popular religions, and the _literati_ also honoured the gods
of these two sects. Buddhist deities gradually became installed in
Taoist temples, and the Taoist immortals were given seats beside the
Buddhas in their sanctuaries. Every one patronized the god who seemed
to him the most popular and the most lucrative. There even came to
be united in the same temple and worshipped at the same altar the
three religious founders or figure-heads, Confucius, Buddha, and Lao
Tzu. The three religions were even regarded as forming one whole,
or at least, though different, as having one and the same object:
_san êrh i yeh_, or _han san wei i_, "the three are one," or "the
three unite to form one" (a quotation from the phrase _T'ai chi han
san wei i_ of Fang Yü-lu: "When they reach the extreme the three are
seen to be one"). In the popular pictorial representations of the
pantheon this impartiality is clearly shown.


The Super-triad

The toleration, fraternity, or co-mixture of the three
religions--ancestor-worship or Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism,
and Taoism--explains the compound nature of the triune head of
the Chinese pantheon. The numerous deities of Buddhism and Taoism
culminate each in a triad of gods (the Three Precious Ones and the
Three Pure Ones respectively), but the three religions jointly have
also a triad compounded of one representative member of each. This
general or super-triad is, of course, composed of Confucius, Lao Tzu,
and Buddha. This is the officially decreed order, though it is varied
occasionally by Buddha being placed in the centre (the place of honour)
as an act of ceremonial deference shown to a 'stranger' or 'guest'
from another country.


Worship of the Living

Before proceeding to consider the gods of China in detail, it is
necessary to note that ancestor-worship, which, as before stated,
is worship of the ghosts of deceased persons, who are usually but
not invariably relatives of the worshipper, has at times a sort of
preliminary stage in this world consisting of the worship of living
beings. Emperors, viceroys, popular officials, or people beloved for
their good deeds have had altars, temples, and images erected to them,
where they are worshipped in the same way as those who have already
"shuffled off this mortal coil." The most usual cases are perhaps those
of the worship of living emperors and those in which some high official
who has gained the gratitude of the people is transferred to another
post. The explanation is simple. The second self which exists after
death is identical with the second self inhabiting the body during
life. Therefore it may be propitiated or gratified by sacrifices
of food, drink, etc., or theatricals performed in its honour, and
continue its protection and good offices even though now far away.



Confucianism

Confucianism (_Ju Chiao_) is said to be the religion of the learned,
and the learned were the officials and the _literati_ or lettered
class, which includes scholars waiting for posts, those who have failed
to get posts (or, though qualified, prefer to live in retirement), and
those who have retired from posts. Of this 'religion' it has been said:

"The name embraces education, letters, ethics, and political
philosophy. Its head was not a religious man, practised few religious
rites, and taught nothing about religion. In its usual acceptation the
term Confucianist means 'a gentleman and a scholar'; he may worship
only once a year, yet he belongs to the Church. Unlike its two sisters,
it has no priesthood, and fundamentally is not a religion at all;
yet with the many rites grafted on the original tree it becomes a
religion, and the one most difficult to deal with. Considered as a
Church, the classics are its scriptures, the schools its churches, the
teachers its priests, ethics its theology, and the written character,
so sacred, its symbol." [13]


Confucius not a God

It should be noted that Confucius himself is not a god, though he
has been and is worshipped (66,000 animals used to be offered to him
every year; probably the number is about the same now). Suggestions
have been made to make him the God of China and Confucianism the
religion of China, so that he and his religion would hold the same
relative positions that Christ and Christianity do in the West. I
was present at the lengthy debate which took place on this subject
in the Chinese Parliament in February 1917, but in spite of many
long, learned, and eloquent speeches, chiefly by scholars of the
old school, the motion was not carried. Nevertheless, the worship
accorded to Confucius was and is (except by 'new' or 'young' China)
of so extreme a nature that he may almost be described as the great
unapotheosized god of China. [14] Some of his portraits even ascribe to
him superhuman attributes. But in spite of all this the fact remains
that Confucius has not been appointed a god and holds no _exequatur_
entitling him to that rank.

If we inquire into the reason of this we find that, astonishing
though it may seem, Confucius is classed by the Chinese not as a god
(_shên_), but as a demon (_kuei_). A short historical statement will
make the matter clear.

In the classical _Li chi, Book of Ceremonial_, we find the categorical
assignment of the worship of certain objects to certain subjective
beings: the emperor worshipped Heaven and earth, the feudal princes the
mountains and rivers, the officials the hearth, and the _literati_
their ancestors. Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers, and hearth
were called _shên_ (gods), and ancestors _kuei_ (demons). This
distinction is due to Heaven being regarded as the god and the
people as demons--the upper is the god, the lower the evil spirit or
demon. Though _kuei_ were usually bad, the term in Chinese includes
both good and evil spirits. In ancient times those who had by their
meritorious virtue while in the world averted calamities from the
people were posthumously worshipped and called gods, but those who were
worshipped by their descendants only were called spirits or demons.

In the worship of Confucius by emperors of various dynasties (details
of which need not be given here) the highest titles conferred on him
were _Hsien Shêng_, 'Former or Ancestral Saint,' and even _Win Hsüan
Wang_, 'Accomplished and Illustrious Prince,' and others containing
like epithets. When for his image or idol there was (in the eleventh
year--A.D. 1307--of the reign-period Ta Tê of the Emperor Ch'êng
Tsung of the Yüan dynasty) substituted the tablet now seen in the
Confucian temples, these were the inscriptions engraved on it. In the
inscriptions authoritatively placed on the tablets the word _shên_
does not occur; in those cases where it does occur it has been
placed there (as by the Taoists) illegally and without authority
by too ardent devotees. Confucius may not be called a _shên_, since
there is no record showing that the great ethical teacher was ever
apotheosized, or that any order was given that the character _shên_
was to be applied to him.


The God of Literature

In addition to the ancestors of whose worship it really consists,
Confucianism has in its pantheon the specialized gods worshipped by
the _literati_. Naturally the chief of these is Wên Ch'ang, the God of
Literature. The account of him (which varies in several particulars
in different Chinese works) relates that he was a man of the name
of Chang Ya, who was born during the T'ang dynasty in the kingdom of
Yüeh (modern Chêkiang), and went to live at Tzu T'ung in Ssuch'uan,
where his intelligence raised him to the position of President of the
Board of Ceremonies. Another account refers to him as Chang Ya Tzu,
the Soul or Spirit of Tzu T'ung, and states that he held office in the
Chin dynasty (A.D. 265-316), and was killed in a fight. Another again
states that under the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), in the third year
(A.D. 1000) of the reign-period Hsien P'ing of the Emperor Chên Tsung,
he repressed the revolt of Wang Chün at Ch'êng Tu in Ssuch'uan. General
Lei Yu-chung caused to be shot into the besieged town arrows to which
notices were attached inviting the inhabitants to surrender. Suddenly
a man mounted a ladder, and pointing to the rebels cried in a loud
voice: "The Spirit of Tzu T'ung has sent me to inform you that the
town will fall into the hands of the enemy on the twentieth day of
the ninth moon, and not a single person will escape death." Attempts
to strike down this prophet of evil were in vain, for he had already
disappeared. The town was captured on the day indicated. The general,
as a reward, caused the temple of Tzu T'ung's Spirit to be repaired,
and sacrifices offered to it.

The object of worship nowadays in the temples dedicated to Wên Ch'ang
is Tzu T'ung Ti Chün, the God of Tzu T'ung. The convenient elasticity
of dualism enabled Chang to have as many as seventeen reincarnations,
which ranged over a period of some three thousand years.

Various emperors at various times bestowed upon Wên Ch'ang honorific
titles, until ultimately, in the Yüan, or Mongol, dynasty, in the reign
Yen Yu, in A.D. 1314, the title was conferred on him of Supporter of
the Yüan Dynasty, Diffuser of Renovating Influences, Ssu-lu of Wên
Ch'ang, God and Lord. He was thus apotheosized, and took his place
among the gods of China. By steps few or many a man in China has
often become a god.


Wên Ch'ang and the Great Bear

Thus we have the God of Literature, Wên Ch'ang Ti Chün, duly installed
in the Chinese pantheon, and sacrifices were offered to him in the
schools.

But scholars, especially those about to enter for the public
competitive examinations, worshipped as the God of Literature, or as
his palace or abode (Wên Ch'ang), the star K'uei in the Great Bear,
or Dipper, or Bushel--the latter name derived from its resemblance in
shape to the measure used by the Chinese and called _tou_. The term
K'uei was more generally applied to the four stars forming the body
or square part of the Dipper, the three forming the tail or handle
being called Shao or Piao. How all this came about is another story.

A scholar, as famous for his literary skill as his facial deformities,
had been admitted as first academician at the metropolitan
examinations. It was the custom that the Emperor should give with
his own hand a rose of gold to the fortunate candidate. This scholar,
whose name was Chung K'uei, presented himself according to custom to
receive the reward which by right was due to him. At the sight of
his repulsive face the Emperor refused the golden rose. In despair
the miserable rejected one went and threw himself into the sea. At
the moment when he was being choked by the waters a mysterious fish
or monster called _ao_ raised him on its back and brought him to the
surface. K'uei ascended to Heaven and became arbiter of the destinies
of men of letters. His abode was said to be the star K'uei, a name
given by the Chinese to the sixteen stars of the constellation or
'mansion' of Andromeda and Pisces. The scholars quite soon began
to worship K'uei as the God of Literature, and to represent it on a
column in the temples. Then sacrifices were offered to it. This star
or constellation was regarded as the palace of the god. The legend
gave rise to an expression frequently used in Chinese of one who
comes out first in an examination, namely, _tu chan ao t'ou_, "to
stand alone on the sea-monster's head." It is especially to be noted
that though the two K'ueis have the same sound they are represented
by different characters, and that the two constellations are not the
same, but are situated in widely different parts of the heavens.

How then did it come about that scholars worshipped the K'uei in
the Great Bear as the abode of the God of Literature? (It may be
remarked in passing that a literary people could not have chosen
a more appropriate palace for this god, since the Great Bear,
the 'Chariot of Heaven,' is regarded as the centre and governor
of the whole universe.) The worship, we saw, was at first that of
the star K'uei, the apotheosized 'homely,' successful, but rejected
candidate. As time went on, there was a general demand for a sensible,
concrete representation of this star-god: a simple character did not
satisfy the popular taste. But it was no easy matter to comply with the
demand. Eventually, guided doubtless by the community of pronunciation,
they substituted for the star or group of stars K'uei (1),
venerated in ancient times, a new star or group of stars K'uei (2),
forming the square part of the Bushel, Dipper, or Great Bear. But for
this again no bodily image could be found, so the form of the written
character itself was taken, and so drawn as to represent a _kuei_
(3) (disembodied spirit, or ghost) with its foot raised, and bearing
aloft a _tou_ (4) (bushel-measure). The adoration was thus misplaced,
for the constellation K'uei (2) was mistaken for K'uei (1), the proper
object of worship. It was due to this confusion by the scholars that
the Northern Bushel came to be worshipped as the God of Literature.


Wên Ch'ang and Tzu T'ung

This worship had nothing whatever to do with the Spirit of Tzu T'ung,
but the Taoists have connected Chang Ya with the constellation in
another way by saying that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, entrusted Chang
Ya's son with the management of the palace of Wên Ch'ang. And scholars
gradually acquired the habit of saying that they owed their success
to the Spirit of Tzu T'ung, which they falsely represented as being an
incarnation of the star Wên Ch'ang. This is how Chang Ya came to have
the honorific title of Wên Ch'ang, but, as a Chinese author points
out, Chang belonged properly to Ssuch'uan, and his worship should
be confined to that province. The _literati_ there venerated him as
their master, and as a mark of affection and gratitude built a temple
to him; but in doing so they had no intention of making him the God of
Literature. "There being no real connexion between Chang Ya and K'uei,
the worship should be stopped." The device of combining the personality
of the patron of literature enthroned among the stars with that of the
deified mortal canonized as the Spirit of Tzu T'ung was essentially a
Taoist trick. "The thaumaturgic reputation assigned to the Spirit of
Chang Ya Tzu was confined for centuries to the valleys of Ssuch'uan,
until at some period antecedent to the reign Yen Yu, in A.D. 1314,
a combination was arranged between the functions of the local god
and those of the stellar patron of literature. Imperial sanction
was obtained for this stroke of priestly cunning; and notwithstanding
protests continually repeated by orthodox sticklers for accuracy in the
religious canon, the composite deity has maintained his claims intact,
and an inseparable connexion between the God of Literature created by
imperial patent and the spirit lodged among the stars of Ursa Major is
fully recognized in the State ceremonial of the present day." A temple
dedicated to this divinity by the State exists in every city of China,
besides others erected as private benefactions or speculations.

Wherever Wên Ch'ang is worshipped there will also be found a separate
representation of K'uei Hsing, showing that while the official deity
has been allowed to 'borrow glory' from the popular god, and even
to assume his personality, the independent existence of the stellar
spirit is nevertheless sedulously maintained. The place of the latter
in the heavens above is invariably symbolized by the lodgment of his
idol in an upper storey or tower, known as the K'uei Hsing Ko or K'uei
Hsing Lou. Here students worship the patron of their profession with
incense and prayers. Thus the ancient stellar divinity still largely
monopolizes the popular idea of a guardian of literature and study,
notwithstanding that the deified recluse of Tzu T'ung has been added in
this capacity to the State pantheon for more than five hundred years.


Heaven-deaf and Earth-dumb

The popular representations of Wên Ch'ang depict the god himself and
four other figures. The central and largest is the demure portrait of
the god, clothed in blue and holding a sceptre in his left hand. Behind
him stand two youthful attendants. They are the servant and groom
who always accompany him on his journeys (on which he rides a white
horse). Their names are respectively Hsüan T'ung-tzu and Ti-mu, 'Sombre
Youth' and 'Earth-mother'; more commonly they are called T'ien-lung,
'Deaf Celestial,' and Ti-ya, 'Mute Terrestrial,' or 'Deaf as Heaven'
and 'Mute as Earth.' Thus they cannot divulge the secrets of their
master's administration as he distributes intellectual gifts, literary
skill, etc. Their cosmogonical connexion has already been referred
to in a previous chapter.


Image of K'uei Hsing

In front of Wên Ch'ang, on his left, stands K'uei Hsing. He is
represented as of diminutive stature, with the visage of a demon,
holding a writing-brush in his right hand and a _tou_ in his left,
one of his legs kicking up behind--the figure being obviously intended
as an impersonation of the character _k'uei_ (2). [16] He is regarded
as the distributor of literary degrees, and was invoked above all
in order to obtain success at the competitive examinations. His
images and temples are found in all towns. In the temples dedicated
to Wên Ch'ang there are always two secondary altars, one of which is
consecrated to his worship.


Mr Redcoat

The other is dedicated to Chu I, 'Mr Redcoat.' He and K'uei Hsing
are represented as the two inseparable companions of the God of
Literature. The legend related of Chu I is as follows:

During the T'ang dynasty, in the reign-period Chien Chung (A.D. 780-4)
of the Emperor Tê Tsung, the Princess T'ai Yin noticed that Lu Ch'i,
a native of Hua Chou, had the bones of an Immortal, and wished to
marry him.

Ma P'o, her neighbour, introduced him one day into the Crystal
Palace for an interview with his future wife. The Princess gave him
the choice of three careers: to live in the Dragon Prince's Palace,
with the guarantee of immortal life, to enjoy immortality among the
people on the earth, or to have the honour of becoming a minister of
the Empire. Lu Ch'i first answered that he would like to live in the
Crystal Palace. The young lady, overjoyed, said to him: "I am Princess
T'ai Yin. I will at once inform Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler." A moment
later the arrival of a celestial messenger was announced. Two officers
bearing flags preceded him and conducted him to the foot of the flight
of steps. He then presented himself as Chu I, the envoy of Shang Ti.

Addressing himself to Lu Ch'i, he asked: "Do you wish to live in the
Crystal Palace?" The latter did not reply. T'ai Yin urged him to give
his answer, but he persisted in keeping silent. The Princess in despair
retired to her apartment, and brought out five pieces of precious
cloth, which she presented to the divine envoy, begging him to have
patience a little longer and wait for the answer. After some time,
Chu I repeated his question. Then Lu Ch'i in a firm voice answered:
"I have consecrated my life to the hard labour of study, and wish to
attain to the dignity of minister on this earth."

T'ai Yin ordered Ma P'o to conduct Lu Ch'i from the palace. From that
day his face became transformed: he acquired the lips of a dragon,
the head of a panther, the green face of an Immortal, etc. He took
his degree, and was promoted to be Director of the Censorate. The
Emperor, appreciating the good sense shown in his advice, appointed
him a minister of the Empire.

From this legend it would seem that Chu I is the purveyor of official
posts; however, in practice, he is more generally regarded as the
protector of weak candidates, as the God of Good Luck for those who
present themselves at the examinations with a somewhat light equipment
of literary knowledge. The special legend relating to this _rôle_
is known everywhere in China. It is as follows:


Mr Redcoat nods his Head

An examiner, engaged in correcting the essays of the candidates,
after a superficial scrutiny of one of the essays, put it on one
side as manifestly inferior, being quite determined not to pass the
candidate who had composed it. The essay, moved by some mysterious
power, was replaced in front of his eyes, as if to invite him to
examine it more attentively. At the same time a reverend old man,
clothed in a red garment, suddenly appeared before him, and by a nod
of his head gave him to understand that he should pass the essay. The
examiner, surprised at the novelty of the incident, and fortified by
the approval of his supernatural visitor, admitted the author of the
essay to the literary degree.

Chu I, like K'uei Hsing, is invoked by the _literati_ as a powerful
protector and aid to success. When anyone with but a poor chance of
passing presents himself at an examination, his friends encourage
him by the popular saying: "Who knows but that Mr Redcoat will nod
his head?"


Mr Golden Cuirass

Chu I is sometimes accompanied by another personage, named Chin Chia,
'Mr Golden Cuirass.' Like K'uei Hsing and Chu I he has charge of the
interests of scholars, but differs from them in that he holds a flag,
which he has only to wave in front of a house for the family inhabiting
it to be assured that among their descendants will be some who will
win literary honours and be promoted to high offices under the State.

Though Chin Chia is the protector of scholars, he is also the
redoubtable avenger of their evil actions: his flag is saluted as a
good omen, but his sword is the terror of the wicked.


The God of War

Still another patron deity of literature is the God of War. "How,"
it may be asked, "can so peaceful a people as the Chinese put so
peaceful an occupation as literature under the patronage of so warlike
a deity as the God of War?" But that question betrays ignorance of the
character of the Chinese Kuan Ti. He is not a cruel tyrant delighting
in battle and the slaying of enemies: he is the god who can _avert
war and protect the people from its horrors_.

A youth, whose name was originally Chang-shêng, afterward changed to
Shou-chang, and then to Yün-chang, who was born near Chieh Liang,
in Ho Tung (now the town of Chieh Chou in Shansi), and was of an
intractable nature, having exasperated his parents, was shut up in a
room from which he escaped by breaking through the window. In one of
the neighbouring houses he heard a young lady and an old man weeping
and lamenting. Running to the foot of the wall of the compound, he
inquired the reason of their grief. The old man replied that though
his daughter was already engaged, the uncle of the local official,
smitten by her beauty, wished to make her his concubine. His petitions
to the official had only been rejected with curses.

Beside himself with rage, the youth seized a sword and went and killed
both the official and his uncle. He escaped through the T'ung Kuan, the
pass to Shensi. Having with difficulty avoided capture by the barrier
officials, he knelt down at the side of a brook to wash his face;
when lo! his appearance was completely transformed. His complexion
had become reddish-grey, and he was absolutely unrecognizable. He
then presented himself with assurance before the officers, who asked
him his name. "My name is Kuan," he replied. It was by that name that
he was thereafter known.


The Meat-seller's Challenge

One day he arrived at Chu-chou, a dependent sub-prefecture of Peking,
in Chihli. There Chang Fei, a butcher, who had been selling his meat
all the morning, at noon lowered what remained into a well, placed
over the mouth of the well a stone weighing twenty-five pounds, and
said with a sneer: "If anyone can lift that stone and take my meat,
I will make him a present of it!" Kuan Yü, going up to the edge of
the well, lifted the stone with the same ease as he would a tile,
took the meat, and made off. Chang Fei pursued him, and eventually
the two came to blows, but no one dared to separate them. Just then
Liu Pei, a hawker of straw shoes, arrived, interposed, and put a stop
to the fight. The community of ideas which they found they possessed
soon gave rise to a firm friendship between the three men.


The Oath in the Peach-orchard

Another account represents Liu Pei and Chang Fei as having entered
a village inn to drink wine, when a man of gigantic stature pushing
a wheelbarrow stopped at the door to rest. As he seated himself,
he hailed the waiter, saying: "Bring me some wine quickly, because
I have to hasten to reach the town to enlist in the army."

Liu Pei looked at this man, nine feet in height, with a beard two feet
long. His face was the colour of the fruit of the jujube-tree, and
his lips carmine. Eyebrows like sleeping silkworms shaded his phoenix
eyes, which were a scarlet red. Terrible indeed was his bearing.

"What is your name?" asked Liu Pei. "My family name is Kuan, my own
name is Yü, my surname Yün Chang," he replied. "I am from the Ho Tung
country. For the last five or six years I have been wandering about
the world as a fugitive, to escape from my pursuers, because I killed
a powerful man of my country who was oppressing the poor people. I
hear that they are collecting a body of troops to crush the brigands,
and I should like to join the expedition."

Chang Fêi, also named Chang I Tê, is described as eight feet in
height, with round shining eyes in a panther's head, and a pointed
chin bristling with a tiger's beard. His voice resembled the rumbling
of thunder. His ardour was like that of a fiery steed. He was a native
of Cho Chün, where he possessed some fertile farms, and was a butcher
and wine-merchant.

Liu Pei, surnamed Hsüan Tê, otherwise Hsien Chu, was the third member
of the group.

The three men went to Chang Fei's farm, and on the morrow met together
in his peach-orchard, and sealed their friendship with an oath. Having
procured a black ox and a white horse, with the various accessories
to a sacrifice, they immolated the victims, burnt the incense of
friendship, and after twice prostrating themselves took this oath:

"We three, Liu Pei, Kuan Yû, and Chang Fei, already united by mutual
friendship, although belonging to different clans, now bind ourselves
by the union of our hearts, and join our forces in order to help each
other in times of danger.

"We wish to pay to the State our debt of loyal citizens and give peace
to our black-haired compatriots. We do not inquire if we were born
in the same year, the same month, or on the same day, but we desire
only that the same year, the same month, and the same day may find us
united in death. May Heaven our King and Earth our Queen see clearly
our hearts! If any one of us violate justice or forget benefits,
may Heaven and Man unite to punish him!"

The oath having been formally taken, Liu Pei was saluted as elder
brother, Kuan Yü as the second, and Chang Fei as the youngest. Their
sacrifice to Heaven and earth ended, they killed an ox and served
a feast, to which the soldiers of the district were invited to the
number of three hundred or more. They all drank copiously until they
were intoxicated. Liu Pei enrolled the peasants; Chang Fei procured
for them horses and arms; and then they set out to make war on the
Yellow Turbans (Huang Chin Tsei). Kuan Yü proved himself worthy
of the affection which Liu Pei showed him; brave and generous, he
never turned aside from danger. His fidelity was shown especially
on one occasion when, having been taken prisoner by Ts'ao Ts'ao,
together with two of Liu Pei's wives, and having been allotted a common
sleeping-apartment with his fellow-captives, he preserved the ladies'
reputation and his own trustworthiness by standing all night at the
door of the room with a lighted lantern in his hand.

Into details of the various exploits of the three Brothers of the
Peach-orchard we need not enter here. They are written in full in the
book of the _Story of the Three Kingdoms_, a romance in which every
Chinese who can read takes keen delight. Kuan Yü remained faithful to
his oath, even though tempted with a marquisate by the great Ts'ao
Ts'ao, but he was at length captured by Sun Ch'üan and put to death
(A.D. 219). Long celebrated as the most renowned of China's military
heroes, he was ennobled in A.D. 1120 as Faithful and Loyal Duke. Eight
years later he had conferred on him by letters patent the still more
glorious title of Magnificent Prince and Pacificator. The Emperor Wên
(A.D. 1330-3) of the Yüan dynasty added the appellation Warrior Prince
and Civilizer, and, finally, the Emperor Wan Li of the Ming dynasty,
in 1594, conferred on him the title of Faithful and Loyal Great _Ti_,
Supporter of Heaven and Protector of the Kingdom. He thus became a god,
a _ti_, and has ever since received worship as Kuan Ti or Wu Ti, the
God of War. Temples (1600 State temples and thousands of smaller ones)
erected in his honour are to be seen in all parts of the country. He
is one of the most popular gods of China. During the last half-century
of the Manchu Period his fame greatly increased. In 1856 he is said
to have appeared in the heavens and successfully turned the tide of
battle in favour of the Imperialists. His portrait hangs in every tent,
but his worship is not confined to the officials and the army, for
many trades and professions have elected him as a patron saint. The
sword of the public executioner used to be kept within the precincts
of his temple, and after an execution the presiding magistrate would
stop there to worship for fear the ghost of the criminal might follow
him home. He knew that the spirit would not dare to enter Kuan Ti's
presence.

Thus the Chinese have no fewer than three gods of literature--perhaps
not too many for so literary a people. A fourth, a Taoist god, will
be mentioned later.


Buddhism in China

Buddhism and its mythology have formed an important part of Chinese
thought for nearly two thousand years. The religion was brought
to China about A.D. 65, ready-made in its Mahayanistic form, in
consequence of a dream of the Emperor Ming Ti (A.D. 58-76) of the
Eastern Han dynasty in or about the year 63; though some knowledge
of Buddha and his doctrines existed as early as 217 B.C. As Buddha,
the chief deity of Buddhism, was a man and became a god, the religion
originated, like the others, in ancestor-worship. When a man dies, says
this religion, his other self reappears in one form or another, "from a
clod to a divinity." The way for Buddhism in China was paved by Taoism,
and Buddhism reciprocally affected Taoism by helpful development of
its doctrines of sanctity and immortalization. Buddhism also, as it has
been well put by Dr De Groot, [17] "contributed much to the ceremonial
adornment of ancestor-worship. Its salvation work on behalf of the
dead saved its place in Confucian China; for of Confucianism itself,
piety and devotion towards parents and ancestors, and the promotion of
their happiness, were the core, and, consequently, their worship with
sacrifices and ceremonies was always a sacred duty." It was thus that
it was possible for the gods of Buddhism to be introduced into China
and to maintain their special characters and fulfil their special
functions without being absorbed into or submerged by the existing
native religions. The result was, as we have seen, in the end a
partnership rather than a relation of master and servant; and I say
'in the end' because, contrary to popular belief, the Chinese have
not been tolerant of foreign religious faiths, and at various times
have persecuted Buddhism as relentlessly as they have other rivals
to orthodox Confucianism.


Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood

At the head of the Buddhist gods in China we find the triad
known as Buddha, the Law, and the Church, or Priesthood, which are
personified as Shih-chia Fo (Shâkya), O-mi-t'o Fo (Amita), and Ju-lai
Fo (Tathagata); otherwise Fo Pao, Fa Pao, and Sêng Pao (the _San Pao_,
'Three Precious Ones')--that is, Buddha, the prophet who came into the
world to teach the Law, Dharma, the Law Everlasting, and Samgha, its
mystical body, Priesthood, or Church. Dharma is an entity underived,
containing the spiritual elements and material constituents of the
universe. From it the other two evolve: Buddha (Shâkyamuni), the
creative energy, Samgha, the totality of existence and of life. To the
people these are three personal Buddhas, whom they worship without
concerning themselves about their origin. To the priests they are
simply the Buddha, past, present, or future. There are also several
other of these groups or triads, ten or more, composed of different
deities, or sometimes containing one or two of the triad already
named. Shâkyamuni heads the list, having a place in at least six.

The legend of the Buddha belongs rather to Indian than to Chinese
mythology, and is too long to be reproduced here. [18]

The principal gods of Buddhism are Jan-têng Fo, the Light-lamp
Buddha, Mi-lo Fo (Maitrêya), the expected Messiah of the Buddhists,
O-mi-t'o Fo (Amitabha or Amita), the guide who conducts his devotees
to the Western Paradise, Yüeh-shih Fo, the Master-physician Buddha,
Ta-shih-chih P'u-sa (Mahastama), companion of Amitabha, P'i-lu Fo
(Vairotchana), the highest of the Threefold Embodiments, Kuan Yin,
the Goddess of Mercy, Ti-tsang Wang, the God of Hades, Wei-t'o
(Vihârapâla), the Dêva protector of the Law of Buddha and Buddhist
temples, the Four Diamond Kings of Heaven, and Bodhidharma, the first
of the six Patriarchs of Eastern or Chinese Buddhism.


Diamond Kings of Heaven

On the right and left sides of the entrance hall of Buddhist temples,
two on each side, are the gigantic figures of the four great _Ssu Ta
Chin-kang_ or _T'ien-wang_, the Diamond Kings of Heaven, protectors
or governors of the continents lying in the direction of the four
cardinal points from Mount Sumêru, the centre of the world. They are
four brothers named respectively Mo-li Ch'ing (Pure), or Tsêng Chang,
Mo-li Hung (Vast), or Kuang Mu, Mo-li Hai (Sea), or To Wên, and Mo-li
Shou (Age), or Ch'ih Kuo. The _Chin kuang ming_ states that they bestow
all kinds of happiness on those who honour the Three Treasures, Buddha,
the Law, and the Priesthood. Kings and nations who neglect the Law
lose their protection. They are described and represented as follows:

Mo-li Ch'ing, the eldest, is twenty-four feet in height, with a beard
the hairs of which are like copper wire. He carries a magnificent
jade ring and a spear, and always fights on foot. He has also a magic
sword, 'Blue Cloud,' on the blade of which are engraved the characters
_Ti, Shui, Huo, Fêng_ (Earth, Water, Fire, Wind). When brandished,
it causes a black wind, which produces tens of thousands of spears,
which pierce the bodies of men and turn them to dust. The wind is
followed by a fire, which fills the air with tens of thousands of
golden fiery serpents. A thick smoke also rises out of the ground,
which blinds and burns men, none being able to escape.

Mo-li Hung carries in his hand an umbrella, called the Umbrella of
Chaos, formed of pearls possessed of spiritual properties. Opening
this marvellous implement causes the heavens and earth to be covered
with thick darkness, and turning it upside down produces violent
storms of wind and thunder and universal earthquakes.

Mo-li Hai holds a four-stringed guitar, the twanging of which
supernaturally affects the earth, water, fire, or wind. When it is
played all the world listens, and the camps of the enemy take fire.

Mo-li Shou has two whips and a panther-skin bag, the home of a creature
resembling a white rat, known as Hua-hu Tiao. When at large this
creature assumes the form of a white winged elephant, which devours
men. He sometimes has also a snake or other man-eating creature,
always ready to obey his behests.



Legend of the Diamond Kings

The legend of the Four Diamond Kings given in the _Fêng shên yen i_
is as follows: At the time of the consolidation of the Chou dynasty
in the twelfth and eleventh centuries B.C., Chiang Tzu-ya, chief
counsellor to Wên Wang, and General Huang Fei-hu were defending
the town and mountain of Hsi-ch'i. The supporters of the house of
Shang appealed to the four genii Mo, who lived at Chia-mêng Kuan,
praying them to come to their aid. They agreed, raised an army
of 100,000 celestial soldiers, and traversing towns, fields, and
mountains arrived in less than a day at the north gate of Hsi-ch'i,
where Mo-li Ch'ing pitched his camp and entrenched his soldiers.

Hearing of this, Huang Fei-hu hastened to warn Chiang Tzu-ya of the
danger which threatened him. "The four great generals who have just
arrived at the north gate," he said, "are marvellously powerful genii,
experts in all the mysteries of magic and use of wonderful charms. It
is much to be feared that we shall not be able to resist them."

Many fierce battles ensued. At first these went in favour of the
_Chin-kang_, thanks to their magical weapons and especially to Mo-li
Shou's Hua-hu Tiao, who terrorized the enemy by devouring their
bravest warriors.


Hua-hu Tiao devours Yang Chien

Unfortunately for the _Chin-kang_, the brute attacked and swallowed
Yang Chien, the nephew of Yü Huang. This genie, on entering the body
of the monster, rent his heart asunder and cut him in two. As he could
transform himself at will, he assumed the shape of Hua-hu Tiao, and
went off to Mo-li Shou, who unsuspectingly put him back into his bag.

The Four Kings held a festival to celebrate their triumph, and having
drunk copiously gave themselves over to sleep. During the night Yang
Chien came out of the bag, with the intention of possessing himself of
the three magical weapons of the _Chin-kang_. But he succeeded only in
carrying off the umbrella of Mo-li Hung. In a subsequent engagement
No-cha, the son of Vadjrâ-pani, the God of Thunder, broke the jade
ring of Mo-li Ch'ing. Misfortune followed misfortune. The _Chin-kang_,
deprived of their magical weapons, began to lose heart. To complete
their discomfiture, Huang T'ien Hua brought to the attack a matchless
magical weapon. This was a spike 7 1/2 inches long, enclosed in a
silk sheath, and called 'Heart-piercer.' It projected so strong a
ray of light that eyes were blinded by it.

Huang T'ien Hua, hard pressed by Mo-li Ch'ing, drew the mysterious
spike from its sheath, and hurled it at his adversary. It entered
his neck, and with a deep groan the giant fell dead.

Mo-li Hung and Mo-li Hai hastened to avenge their brother, but ere
they could come within striking distance of Huang Ti'en Hua his
redoubtable spike reached their hearts, and they lay prone at his feet.

The one remaining hope for the sole survivor was in Hua-hu Tiao. Mo-li
Shou, not knowing that the creature had been slain, put his hand into
the bag to pull him out, whereupon Yang Chien, who had re-entered the
bag, bit his hand off at the wrist, so that there remained nothing
but a stump of bone.

In this moment of intense agony Mo-li Shou fell an easy prey to Huang
T'ien Hua, the magical spike pierced his heart, and he fell bathed
in his blood. Thus perished the last of the _Chin-kang_.



The Three Pure Ones

Turning to the gods of Taoism, we find that the triad or trinity,
already noted as forming the head of that hierarchy, consists of
three Supreme Gods, each in his own Heaven. These three Heavens,
the _San Ch'ing_, 'Three Pure Ones' (this name being also applied
to the sovereigns ruling in them), were formed from the three airs,
which are subdivisions of the one primordial air.

The first Heaven is Yü Ch'ing. In it reigns the first member of
the Taoist triad. He inhabits the Jade Mountain. The entrance to
his palace is named the Golden Door. He is the source of all truth,
as the sun is the source of all light.

Various authorities give his name differently--Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun,
or Lo Ching Hsin, and call him T'ien Pao, 'the Treasure of Heaven,'
Some state that the name of the ruler of this first Heaven is Yü
Huang, and in the popular mind he it is who occupies this supreme
position. The Three Pure Ones are above him in rank, but to him, the
Pearly Emperor, is entrusted the superintendence of the world. He has
all the power of Heaven and earth in his hands. He is the correlative
of Heaven, or rather Heaven itself.

The second Heaven, Shang Ch'ing, is ruled by the second person of
the triad, named Ling-pao T'ien-tsun, or Tao Chün. No information is
given as to his origin. He is the custodian of the sacred books. He has
existed from the beginning of the world. He calculates time, dividing
it into different epochs. He occupies the upper pole of the world, and
determines the movements and interaction, or regulates the relations
of the _yin_ and the _yang_, the two great principles of nature.

In the third Heaven, T'ai Ch'ing, the Taoists place Lao Tzu, the
promulgator of the true doctrine drawn up by Ling-pao T'ien-tsun. He
is alternatively called Shên Pao, 'the Treasure of the Spirits,'
and T'ai-shang Lao-chûn, 'the Most Eminent Aged Ruler.' Under various
assumed names he has appeared as the teacher of kings and emperors,
the reformer of successive generations.

This three-storied Taoist Heaven, or three Heavens, is the result of
the wish of the Taoists not to be out-rivalled by the Buddhists. For
Buddha, the Law, and the Priesthood they substitute the _Tao_, or
Reason, the Classics, and the Priesthood.

As regards the organization of the Taoist Heavens, Yü Huang has on his
register the name of eight hundred Taoist divinities and a multitude
of Immortals. These are all divided into three categories: Saints
(_Shêng-jên_), Heroes (_Chên-jên_), and Immortals (_Hsien-jên_),
occupying the three Heavens respectively in that order.


The Three Causes

Connected with Taoism, but not exclusively associated with that
religion, is the worship of the Three Causes, the deities presiding
over three departments of physical nature, Heaven, earth, and
water. They are known by various designations: _San Kuan_, 'the Three
Agents'; _San Yüan_, 'the Three Origins'; _San Kuan Ta Ti_, 'the Three
Great Emperor Agents'; and _T'ai Shang San Kuan_, 'the Three Supreme
Agents.' This worship has passed through four chief phases, as follows:

The first comprises Heaven, earth, and water, _T'ien, Ti, Shui_,
the sources of happiness, forgiveness of sins, and deliverance from
evil respectively. Each of these is called King-emperor. Their names,
written on labels and offered to Heaven (on a mountain), earth (by
burial), and water (by immersion), are supposed to cure sickness. This
idea dates from the Han dynasty, being first noted about A.D. 172.

The second, _San Yüan_ dating from A.D. 407 under the Wei dynasty,
identified the Three Agents with three dates of which they were
respectively made the patrons. The year was divided into three unequal
parts: the first to the seventh moon; the seventh to the tenth; and
the tenth to the twelfth. Of these, the fifteenth day of the first,
seventh, and tenth moons respectively became the three principal dates
of these periods. Thus the Agent of Heaven became the principal patron
of the first division, honoured on the fifteenth day of the first moon,
and so on.

The third phase, _San Kuan_, resulted from the first two being found
too complicated for popular favour. The _San Kuan_ were the three
sons of a man, Ch'ên Tzu-ch'un, who was so handsome and intelligent
that the three daughters of Lung Wang, the Dragon-king, fell in
love with him and went to live with him. The eldest girl was the
mother of the Superior Cause, the second of the Medium Cause, and the
third of the Inferior Cause. All these were gifted with supernatural
powers. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun canonized them as the Three Great Emperor
Agents of Heaven, earth, and water, governors of all beings, devils
or gods, in the three regions of the universe. As in the first phase,
the _T'ien Kuan_ confers happiness, the _Ti Kuan_ grants remission
of sins, and the _Shui Kuan_ delivers from evil or misfortune.

The fourth phase consisted simply in the substitution by the priests
for the abstract or time-principles of the three great sovereigns
of ancient times, Yao, Shun, and Yü. The _literati_, proud of the
apotheosis of their ancient rulers, hastened to offer incense to them,
and temples, _San Yüan Kung_, arose in very many parts of the Empire.

A variation of this phase is the canonization, with the title of _San
Yüan_ or Three Causes, of _Wu-k'o San Chên Chün_, 'the Three True
Sovereigns, Guests of the Kingdom of Wu.' They were three Censors
who lived in the reign of King Li (Li Wang, 878-841 B.C.) of the Chou
dynasty. Leaving the service of the Chou on account of Li's dissolute
living, they went to live in Wu, and brought victory to that state in
its war with the Ch'u State, then returned to their own country, and
became pillars of the Chou State under Li's successor. They appeared
to protect the Emperor Chên Tsung when he was offering the _Fêng-shan_
sacrifices on T'ai Shan in A.D. 1008, on which occasion they were
canonized with the titles of Superior, Medium, and Inferior Causes,
as before, conferring upon them the regencies of Heaven, earth,
and water respectively.


Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun

Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun, or the First Cause, the Highest in Heaven,
generally placed at the head of the Taoist triad, is said never
to have existed but in the fertile imagination of the Lao Tzuist
sectarians. According to them Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun had neither origin
nor master, but is himself the cause of all beings, which is why he
is called the First Cause.

As first member of the triad, and sovereign ruler of the First Heaven,
Yü Ch'ing, where reign the saints, he is raised in rank above all
the other gods. The name assigned to him is Lo Ching Hsin. He was
born before all beginnings; his substance is imperishable; it is
formed essentially of uncreated air, air _a se_, invisible and without
perceptible limits. No one has been able to penetrate to the beginnings
of his existence. The source of all truth, he at each renovation of
the worlds--that is, at each new _kalpa_--gives out the mysterious
doctrine which confers immortality. All who reach this knowledge
attain by degrees to life eternal, become refined like the spirits,
or instantly become Immortals, even while upon earth.

Originally, Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun was not a member of the Taoist
triad. He resided above the Three Heavens, above the Three Pure
Ones, surviving the destructions and renovations of the universe,
as an immovable rock in the midst of a stormy sea. He set the stars
in motion, and caused the planets to revolve. The chief of his secret
police was Tsao Chün, the Kitchen-god, who rendered to him an account
of the good and evil deeds of each family. His executive agent was
Lei Tsu, the God of Thunder, and his subordinates. The seven stars
of the North Pole were the palace of his ministers, whose offices
were on the various sacred mountains. Nowadays, however, Yüan-shih
T'ien-tsun is generally neglected for Yü Huang.


An Avatar of P'an Ku

According to the tradition of Chin Hung, the God of T'ai Shan
of the fifth generation from P'an Ku, this being, then called
Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, was an avatar of P'an Ku. It came about in
this wise. In remote ages there lived on the mountains an old man,
Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, who used to sit on a rock and preach to the
multitude. He spoke of the highest antiquity as if from personal
experience. When Chin Hung asked him where he lived, he just raised
his hand toward Heaven, iridescent clouds enveloped his body, and he
replied: "Whoso wishes to know where I dwell must rise to impenetrable
heights." "But how," said Chin Hung, "was he to be found in this
immense emptiness?" Two genii, Ch'ih Ching-tzu and Huang Lao, then
descended on the summit of T'ai Shan and said: "Let us go and visit
this Yüan-shih. To do so, we must cross the boundaries of the universe
and pass beyond the farthest stars." Chin Hung begged them to give
him their instructions, to which he listened attentively. They then
ascended the highest of the sacred peaks, and thence mounted into the
heavens, calling to him from the misty heights: "If you wish to know
the origin of Yüan-shih, you must pass beyond the confines of Heaven
and earth, because he lives beyond the limits of the worlds. You must
ascend and ascend until you reach the sphere of nothingness and of
being, in the plains of the luminous shadows."

Having reached these ethereal heights, the two genii saw a bright
light, and Hsüan-hsüan Shang-jên appeared before them. The two
genii bowed to do him homage and to express their gratitude. "You
cannot better show your gratitude," he replied, "than by making my
doctrine known among men. You desire," he added, "to know the history
of Yüan-shih. I will tell it you. When P'an Ku had completed his
work in the primitive Chaos, his spirit left its mortal envelope
and found itself tossed about in empty space without any fixed
support. 'I must,' it said, 'get reborn in visible form; until I can
go through a new birth I shall remain empty and unsettled,' His soul,
carried on the wings of the wind, reached Fu-yü T'ai. There it saw
a saintly lady named T'ai Yüan, forty years of age, still a virgin,
and living alone on Mount Ts'u-o. Air and variegated clouds were
the sole nourishment of her vital spirits. An hermaphrodite, at
once both the active and the passive principle, she daily scaled the
highest peak of the mountain to gather there the flowery quintessence
of the sun and the moon. P'an Ku, captivated by her virgin purity,
took advantage of a moment when she was breathing to enter her mouth
in the form of a ray of light. She was _enceinte_ for twelve years,
at the end of which period the fruit of her womb came out through her
spinal column. From its first moment the child could walk and speak,
and its body was surrounded by a five-coloured cloud. The newly-born
took the name of Yüan-shih T'ien-wang, and his mother was generally
known as T'ai-yüan Shêng-mu, 'the Holy Mother of the First Cause.'"


Yü Huang

Yü Huang means 'the Jade Emperor,' or 'the Pure August One,' jade
symbolizing purity. He is also known by the name Yü-huang Shang-ti,
'the Pure August Emperor on High.'

The history of this deity, who later received many honorific titles
and became the most popular god, a very Chinese Jupiter, seems to be
somewhat as follows: The Emperor Ch'êng Tsung of the Sung dynasty
having been obliged in A.D. 1005 to sign a disgraceful peace with
the Tunguses or Kitans, the dynasty was in danger of losing the
support of the nation. In order to hoodwink the people the Emperor
constituted himself a seer, and announced with great pomp that he
was in direct communication with the gods of Heaven. In doing this
he was following the advice of his crafty and unreliable minister
Wang Ch'in-jo, who had often tried to persuade him that the pretended
revelations attributed to Fu Hsi, Yü Wang, and others were only pure
inventions to induce obedience. The Emperor, having studied his part
well, assembled his ministers in the tenth moon of the year 1012,
and made to them the following declaration: "In a dream I had a visit
from an Immortal, who brought me a letter from Yü Huang, the purport
of which was as follows: 'I have already sent you by your ancestor
Chao [T'ai Tsu] two celestial missives. Now I am going to send him in
person to visit you.'" A little while after his ancestor T'ai Tsu,
the founder of the dynasty, came according to Yü Huang's promise,
and Ch'êng Tsung hastened to inform his ministers of it. This is the
origin of Yü Huang. He was born of a fraud, and came ready-made from
the brain of an emperor.


The Cask of Pearls

Fearing to be admonished for the fraud by another of his ministers,
the scholar Wang Tan, the Emperor resolved to put a golden gag in his
mouth. So one day, having invited him to a banquet, he overwhelmed
him with flattery and made him drunk with good wine. "I would like
the members of your family also to taste this wine," he added, "so I
am making you a present of a cask of it." When Wang Tan returned home,
he found the cask filled with precious pearls. Out of gratitude to the
Emperor he kept silent as to the fraud, and made no further opposition
to his plans, but when on his death-bed he asked that his head be
shaved like a priest's and that he be clothed in priestly robes so
that he might expiate his crime of feebleness before the Emperor.

K'ang Hsi, the great Emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, who had already
declared that if it is wrong to impute deceit to a man it is still
more reprehensible to impute a fraud to Heaven, stigmatized him as
follows: "Wang Tan committed two faults: the first was in showing
himself a vile flatterer of his Prince during his life; the second
was in becoming a worshipper of Buddha at his death."


The Legend of Yü Huang

So much for historical record. The legend of Yü Huang relates that in
ancient times there existed a kingdom named Kuang Yen Miao Lo Kuo,
whose king was Ching Tê, his queen being called Pao Yüeh. Though
getting on in years, the latter had no son. The Taoist priests were
summoned by edict to the palace to perform their rites. They recited
prayers with the object of obtaining an heir to the throne. During
the ensuing night the Queen had a vision. Lao Chün appeared to her,
riding a dragon, and carrying a male child in his arms. He floated down
through the air in her direction. The Queen begged him to give her the
child as an heir to the throne. "I am quite willing," he said. "Here
it is." She fell on her knees and thanked him. On waking she found
herself _enceinte_. At the end of a year the Prince was born. From
an early age he showed himself compassionate and generous to the
poor. On the death of his father he ascended the throne, but after
reigning only a few days abdicated in favour of his chief minister,
and became a hermit at P'u-ming, in Shensi, and also on Mount Hsiu Yen,
in Yünnan. Having attained to perfection, he passed the rest of his
days in curing sickness and saving life; and it was in the exercise
of these charitable deeds that he died. The emperors Ch'êng Tsung
and Hui Tsung, of the Sung dynasty, loaded him with all the various
titles associated with his name at the present day.

Both Buddhists and Taoists claim him as their own, the former
identifying him with Indra, in which case Yü Huang is a Buddhist deity
incorporated into the Taoist pantheon. He has also been taken to be
the subject of a 'nature myth.' The Emperor Ching Tê, his father,
is the sun, the Queen Pao Yüeh the moon, and the marriage symbolizes
the rebirth of the vivifying power which clothes nature with green
plants and beautiful flowers.


T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu

In modern Taoism T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu is regarded as the first of
the Patriarchs and one of the most powerful genii of the sect. His
master was Hung-chün Lao-tsu. He wore a red robe embroidered with
white cranes, and rode a _k'uei niu_, a monster resembling a buffalo,
with one long horn like a unicorn. His palace, the Pi Yu Kung, was
situated on Mount Tzu Chih Yai.

This genie took the part of Chou Wang and helped him to resist Wu
Wang's armies. First, he sent his disciple To-pao Tao-jên to Chieh-p'ai
Kuan. He gave him four precious swords and the plan of a fort which
he was to construct and to name Chu-hsien Chên, 'the Citadel of all
the Immortals.'

To-pao Tao-jên carried out his orders, but he had to fight a battle
with Kuang Ch'êng-tzu, and the latter, armed with a celestial seal,
struck his adversary so hard that he fell to the ground and had to
take refuge in flight.

T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu came to the defence of his disciple and to
restore the morale of his forces. Unfortunately, a posse of gods
arrived to aid Wu Wang's powerful general, Chiang Tzu-ya. The first
who attacked T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was Lao Tzu, who struck him several
times with his stick. Then came Chun T'i, armed with his cane. The
buffalo of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu stamped him under foot, and Chun
T'i was thrown to the earth, and only just had time to rise quickly
and mount into the air amid a great cloud of dust.

There could be no doubt that the fight was going against T'ung-t'ien
Chiao-chu; to complete his discomfiture Jan-têng Tao-jên cleft the air
and fell upon him unexpectedly. With a violent blow of his 'Fix-sea'
staff he cast him down and compelled him to give up the struggle.

T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu then prepared plans for a new fortified camp
beyond T'ung Kuan, and tried to take the offensive again, but again
Lao Tzu stopped him with a blow of his stick. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun
wounded his shoulder with his precious stone Ju-i, and Chun-t'i
Tao-jên waved his 'Branch of the Seven Virtues.' Immediately the
magic sword of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was reduced to splinters, and
he saved himself only by flight.

Hung-chün Lao-tsu, the master of these three genii, seeing his three
beloved disciples in the _mêlée_, resolved to make peace between
them. He assembled all three in a tent in Chiang Tzu-ya's camp, made
them kneel before him, then reproached T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu at length
for having taken the part of the tyrant Chou, and recommended them
in future to live in harmony. After finishing his speech, he produced
three pills, and ordered each of the genii to swallow one. When they
had done so, Hung-chün Lao-tsu said to them: "I have given you these
pills to ensure an inviolable truce among you. Know that the first
who entertains a thought of discord in his heart will find that the
pill will explode in his stomach and cause his instant death."

Hung-chün Lao-tsu then took T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu away with him on
his cloud to Heaven.



Immortals, Heroes, Saints

An Immortal, according to Taoist lore, is a solitary man of the
mountains. He appears to die, but does not. After 'death' his body
retains all the qualities of the living. The body or corpse is for
him only a means of transition, a phase of metamorphosis--a cocoon
or chrysalis, the temporary abode of the butterfly.

To reach this state a hygienic regimen both of the body and mind must
be observed. All luxury, greed, and ambition must be avoided. But
negation is not enough. In the system of nourishment all the elements
which strengthen the essence of the constituent _yin_ and _yang_
principles must be found by means of medicine, chemistry, gymnastic
exercises, etc. When the maximum vital force has been acquired the
means of preserving it and keeping it from the attacks of death
and disease must be discovered; in a word, he must spiritualize
himself--render himself completely independent of matter. All
the experiments have for their object the storing in the pills of
immortality the elements necessary for the development of the vital
force and for the constitution of a new spiritual and super-humanized
being. In this ascending perfection there are several grades:

(1) The Immortal (_Hsien_). The first stage consists in bringing
about the birth of the superhuman in the ascetic's person, which
reaching perfection leaves the earthly body, like the grasshopper
its sheath. This first stage attained, the Immortal travels at will
throughout the universe, enjoys all the advantages of perfect health
without dreading disease or death, eats and drinks copiously--nothing
is wanting to complete his happiness.

(2) The Perfect Man, or Hero (_Chên-jên_). The second stage is a higher
one. The whole body is spiritualized. It has become so subtile, so
spiritual, that it can fly in the air. Borne on the wings of the wind,
seated on the clouds of Heaven, it travels from one world to another
and fixes its habitation in the stars. It is freed from all laws of
matter, but is, however, not completely changed into pure spirit.

(3) The Saint (_Shêng-jên_). The third stage is that of the superhuman
beings or saints. They are those who have attained to extraordinary
intelligence and virtue.


The God of the Immortals

Mu Kung or Tung Wang Kung, the God of the Immortals, was also called
I Chün Ming and Yü Huang Chün, the Prince Yü Huang.

The primitive vapour congealed, remained inactive for a time, and
then produced living beings, beginning with the formation of Mu Kung,
the purest substance of the Eastern Air, and sovereign of the active
male principle _yang_ and of all the countries of the East. His
palace is in the misty heavens, violet clouds form its dome, blue
clouds its walls. Hsien T'ung, 'the Immortal Youth,' and Yü Nü,
'the Jade Maiden,' are his servants. He keeps the register of all
the Immortals, male and female.


Hsi Wang Mu

Hsi Wang Mu was formed of the pure quintessence of the Western Air,
in the legendary continent of Shên Chou. She is often called the
Golden Mother of the Tortoise.

Her family name is variously given as Hou, Yang, and Ho. Her own name
was Hui, and first name Wan-chin. She had nine sons and twenty-four
daughters.

As Mu Kung, formed of the Eastern Air, is the active principle of
the male air and sovereign of the Eastern Air, so Hsi Wang Mu, born
of the Western Air, is the passive or female principle (_yin_) and
sovereign of the Western Air. These two principles, co-operating,
engender Heaven and earth and all the beings of the universe, and
thus become the two principles of life and of the subsistence of all
that exists. She is the head of the troop of genii dwelling on the
K'un-lun Mountains (the Taoist equivalent of the Buddhist Sumêru), and
from time to time holds intercourse with favoured imperial votaries.


The Feast of Peaches

Hsi Wang Mu's palace is situated in the high mountains of the snowy
K'un-lun. It is 1000 _li_ (about 333 miles) in circuit; a rampart of
massive gold surrounds its battlements of precious stones. Its right
wing rises on the edge of the Kingfishers' River. It is the usual
abode of the Immortals, who are divided into seven special categories
according to the colour of their garments--red, blue, black, violet,
yellow, green, and 'nature-colour.' There is a marvellous fountain
built of precious stones, where the periodical banquet of the
Immortals is held. This feast is called P'an-t'ao Hui, 'the Feast of
Peaches.' It takes place on the borders of the Yao Ch'ih, Lake of Gems,
and is attended by both male and female Immortals. Besides several
superfine meats, they are served with bears' paws, monkeys' lips,
dragons' liver, phoenix marrow, and peaches gathered in the orchard,
endowed with the mystic virtue of conferring longevity on all who
have the good luck to taste them. It was by these peaches that the
date of the banquet was fixed. The tree put forth leaves once every
three thousand years, and it required three thousand years after that
for the fruit to ripen. These were Hsi Wang Mu's birthdays, when all
the Immortals assembled for the great feast, "the occasion being more
festive than solemn, for there was music on invisible instruments,
and songs not from mortal tongues."


The First Taoist Pope

Chang Tao-ling, the first Taoist pope, was born in A.D. 35, in the
reign of the Emperor Kuang Wu Ti of the Han dynasty. His birthplace
is variously given as the T'ien-mu Shan, 'Eye of Heaven Mountain,'
in Lin-an Hsien, in Chekiang, and Fêng-yang Fu, in Anhui. He devoted
himself wholly to study and meditation, declining all offers to enter
the service of the State. He preferred to take up his abode in the
mountains of Western China, where he persevered in the study of alchemy
and in cultivating the virtues of purity and mental abstraction. From
the hands of Lao Tzu he received supernaturally a mystic treatise,
by following the instructions in which he was successful in his search
for the elixir of life.

One day when he was engaged in experimenting with the 'Dragon-tiger
elixir' a spiritual being appeared to him and said: "On Po-sung
Mountain is a stone house in which are concealed the writings of the
Three Emperors of antiquity and a canonical work. By obtaining these
you may ascend to Heaven, if you undergo the course of discipline
they prescribe."

Chang Tao-ling found these works, and by means of them obtained
the power of flying, of hearing distant sounds, and of leaving
his body. After going through a thousand days of discipline, and
receiving instruction from a goddess, who taught him to walk about
among the stars, he proceeded to fight with the king of the demons,
to divide mountains and seas, and to command the wind and thunder. All
the demons fled before him. On account of the prodigious slaughter of
demons by this hero the wind and thunder were reduced to subjection,
and various divinities came with eager haste to acknowledge their
faults. In nine years he gained the power to ascend to Heaven.


The Founder of Modern Taoism

Chang Tao-ling may rightly be considered as the true founder of modern
Taoism. The recipes for the pills of immortality contained in the
mysterious books, and the invention of talismans for the cure of all
sorts of maladies, not only exalted him to the high position he has
since occupied in the minds of his numerous disciples, but enabled
them in turn to exploit successfully this new source of power and
wealth. From that time the Taoist sect began to specialize in the art
of healing. Protecting or curing talismans bearing the Master's seal
were purchased for enormous sums. It is thus seen that he was after
all a deceiver of the people, and unbelievers or rival partisans of
other sects have dubbed him a 'rice-thief'--which perhaps he was.

He is generally represented as clothed in richly decorated garments,
brandishing with his right hand his magic sword, holding in his
left a cup containing the draught of immortality, and riding a tiger
which in one paw grasps his magic seal and with the others tramples
down the five venomous creatures: lizard, snake, spider, toad,
and centipede. Pictures of him with these accessories are pasted
up in houses on the fifth day of the fifth moon to forfend calamity
and sickness.



The Peach-gathering

It is related of him that, not wishing to ascend to Heaven too soon,
he partook of only half of the pill of immortality, dividing the
other half among several of his admirers, and that he had at least two
selves or personalities, one of which used to disport itself in a boat
on a small lake in front of his house. The other self would receive
his visitors, entertaining them with food and drink and instructive
conversation. On one occasion this self said to them: "You are unable
to quit the world altogether as I can, but by imitating my example in
the matter of family relations you could procure a medicine which would
prolong your lives by several centuries. I have given the crucible
in which Huang Ti prepared the draught of immortality to my disciple
Wang Ch'ang. Later on, a man will come from the East, who also will
make use of it. He will arrive on the seventh day of the first moon."

Exactly on that day there arrived from the East a man named Chao
Shêng, who was the person indicated by Chang Tao-ling. He was
recognized by a manifestation of himself he had caused to appear
in advance of his coming. Chang then led all his disciples, to the
number of three hundred, to the highest peak of the Yün-t'ai. Below
them they saw a peach-tree growing near a pointed rock, stretching
out its branches like arms above a fathomless abyss. It was a large
tree, covered with ripe fruit. Chang said to his disciples: "I will
communicate a spiritual formula to the one among you who will dare
to gather the fruit of that tree." They all leaned over to look,
but each declared the feat to be impossible. Chao Shêng alone had
the courage to rush out to the point of the rock and up the tree
stretching out into space. With firm foot he stood and gathered the
peaches, placing them in the folds of his cloak, as many as it would
hold, but when he wished to climb back up the precipitous slope,
his hands slipped on the smooth rock, and all his attempts were in
vain. Accordingly, he threw the peaches, three hundred and two in all,
one by one up to Chang Tao-ling, who distributed them. Each disciple
ate one, as also did Chang, who reserved the remaining one for Chao
Shêng, whom he helped to climb up again. To do this Chang extended
his arm to a length of thirty feet, all present marvelling at the
miracle. After Chao had eaten his peach Chang stood on the edge of
the precipice, and said with a laugh: "Chao Shêng was brave enough
to climb out to that tree and his foot never tripped. I too will make
the attempt. If I succeed I will have a big peach as a reward." Having
spoken thus, he leapt into space, and alighted in the branches of the
peach-tree. Wang Ch'ang and Chao Shêng also jumped into the tree and
stood one on each side of him. There Chang communicated to them the
mysterious formula. Three days later they returned to their homes;
then, having made final arrangements, they repaired once more to the
mountain peak, whence, in the presence of the other disciples, who
followed them with their eyes until they had completely disappeared
from view, all three ascended to Heaven in broad daylight.


Chang Tao-ling's Great Power

The name of Chang Tao-ling, the Heavenly Teacher, is a household
word in China. He is on earth the Vicegerent of the Pearly Emperor
in Heaven, and the Commander-in-Chief of the hosts of Taoism. He, the
chief of the wizards, the 'true [_i.e._ ideal] man,' as he is called,
wields an immense spiritual power throughout the land. The present
pope boasts of an unbroken line for three-score generations. His
family obtained possession of the Dragon-tiger Mountain in Kiangsi
about A.D. 1000. "This personage," says a pre-Republican writer,
"assumes a state which mimics the imperial. He confers buttons like
an emperor. Priests come to him from various cities and temples to
receive promotion, whom he invests with titles and presents with
seals of office."


Kings of Heaven

The Four Kings of Heaven, Ssu Ta T'ien-wang, reside on Mount Sumêru
(Hsü-mi Shan), the centre of the universe. It is 3,360,000 _li_--that
is, about a million miles--high. [19] Its eastern slope is of gold, its
western of silver, its south-eastern of crystal, and its north-eastern
of agate. The Four Kings appear to be the Taoist reflection of the
four _Chin-kang_ of Buddhism already noticed. Their names are Li,
Ma, Chao, and Wên. They are represented as holding a pagoda, sword,
two swords, and spiked club respectively. Their worship appears to
be due to their auspicious appearance and aid on various critical
occasions in the dynastic history of the T'ang and Sung Periods.


T'ai I

Temples are found in various parts dedicated to T'ai I, the Great
One, or Great Unity. When Emperor Wu Ti (140-86 B.C.) of the Han
dynasty was in search of the secret of immortality, and various
suggestions had proved unsatisfactory, a Taoist priest, Miao Chi,
told the Emperor that his want of success was due to his omission to
sacrifice to T'ai I, the first of the celestial spirits, quoting the
classical precedent of antiquity found in the _Book of History_. The
Emperor, believing his word, ordered the Grand Master of Sacrifices to
re-establish this worship at the capital. He followed carefully the
prescriptions of Miao Chi. This enraged the _literati_, who resolved
to ruin him. One day, when the Emperor was about to drink one of
his potions, one of the chief courtiers seized the cup and drank the
contents himself. The Emperor was about to have him slain, when he
said: "Your Majesty's order is unnecessary; if the potion confers
immortality, I cannot be killed; if, on the other hand, it does not,
your Majesty should recompense me for disproving the pretensions of
the Taoist priest." The Emperor, however, was not convinced.

One account represents T'ai I as having lived in the time of
Shên Nung, the Divine Husbandman, who visited him to consult with
him on the subjects of diseases and fortune. He was Hsien Yüan's
medical preceptor. His medical knowledge was handed down to future
generations. He was one of those who, with the Immortals, was invited
to the great Peach Assembly of the Western Royal Mother.

As the spirit of the star T'ai I he resides in the Eastern Palace,
listening for the cries of sufferers in order to save them. For this
purpose he assumes numberless forms in various regions. With a boat
of lotus-flowers of nine colours he ferries men over to the shore of
salvation. Holding in his hand a willow-branch, he scatters from it
the dew of the doctrine.

T'ai I is variously represented as the Ruler of the Five Celestial
Sovereigns, Cosmic Matter before it congealed into concrete shapes, the
Triune Spirit of Heaven, earth, and T'ai I as three separate entities,
an unknown Spirit, the Spirit of the Pole Star, etc., but practically
the Taoists confine their T'ai I to T'ai-i Chên-jên, in which Perfect
Man they personify the abstract philosophical notions. [20]


Goddess of the North Star

Tou Mu, the Bushel Mother, or Goddess of the North Star, worshipped
by both Buddhists and Taoists, is the Indian Maritchi, and was made a
stellar divinity by the Taoists. She is said to have been the mother
of the nine Jên Huang or Human Sovereigns of fabulous antiquity,
who succeeded the lines of Celestial and Terrestrial Sovereigns. She
occupies in the Taoist religion the same relative position as Kuan
Yin, who may be said to be the heart of Buddhism. Having attained to
a profound knowledge of celestial mysteries, she shone with heavenly
light, could cross the seas, and pass from the sun to the moon. She
also had a kind heart for the sufferings of humanity. The King of Chou
Yü, in the north, married her on hearing of her many virtues. They
had nine sons. Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun came to earth to invite her, her
husband, and nine sons to enjoy the delights of Heaven. He placed
her in the palace Tou Shu, the Pivot of the Pole, because all the
other stars revolve round it, and gave her the title of Queen of the
Doctrine of Primitive Heaven. Her nine sons have their palaces in
the neighbouring stars.

Tou Mu wears the Buddhist crown, is seated on a lotus throne, has
three eyes, eighteen arms, and holds various precious objects in her
numerous hands, such as a bow, spear, sword, flag, dragon's head,
pagoda, five chariots, sun's disk, moon's disk, etc. She has control
of the books of life and death, and all who wish to prolong their
days worship at her shrine. Her devotees abstain from animal food on
the third and twenty-seventh day of every month.

Of her sons, two are the Northern and Southern Bushels; the latter,
dressed in red, rules birth; the former, in white, rules death. "A
young Esau once found them on the South Mountain, under a tree,
playing chess, and by an offer of venison his lease of life was
extended from nineteen to ninety-nine years."


Snorter and Blower

At the time of the overthrow of the Shang and establishment of the Chou
dynasty in 1122 B.C. there lived two marshals, Chêng Lung and Ch'ên
Ch'i. These were Hêng and Ha, the Snorter and Blower respectively.

The former was the chief superintendent of supplies for the armies of
the tyrant emperor Chou, the Nero of China. The latter was in charge
of the victualling department of the same army.

From his master, Tu O, the celebrated Taoist magician of the K'un-lun
Mountains, Hêng acquired a marvellous power. When he snorted, his
nostrils, with a sound like that of a bell, emitted two white columns
of light, which destroyed his enemies, body and soul. Thus through him
the Chou gained numerous victories. But one day he was captured, bound,
and taken to the general of Chou. His life was spared, and he was
made general superintendent of army stores as well as generalissimo
of five army corps. Later on he found himself face to face with the
Blower. The latter had learnt from the magician how to store in his
chest a supply of yellow gas which, when he blew it out, annihilated
anyone whom it struck. By this means he caused large gaps to be made
in the ranks of the enemy.

Being opposed to each other, the one snorting out great streaks of
white light, the other blowing streams of yellow gas, the combat
continued until the Blower was wounded in the shoulder by No-cha,
of the army of Chou, and pierced in the stomach with a spear by Huang
Fei-hu, Yellow Flying Tiger.

The Snorter in turn was slain in this fight by Marshal Chin Ta-shêng,
'Golden Big Pint,' who was an ox-spirit and endowed with the mysterious
power of producing in his entrails the celebrated _niu huang_,
ox-yellow, or bezoar. Facing the Snorter, he spat in his face, with
a noise like thunder, a piece of bezoar as large as a rice-bowl. It
struck him on the nose and split his nostrils. He fell to the earth,
and was immediately cut in two by a blow from his victor's sword.

After the Chou dynasty had been definitely established Chiang Tzu-ya
canonized the two marshals Hêng and Ha, and conferred on them the
offices of guardians of the Buddhist temple gates, where their gigantic
images may be seen.


Blue Dragon and White Tiger

The functions discharged by Hêng and Ha at the gates of Buddhist
temples are in Taoist temples discharged by Blue Dragon and White
Tiger.

The former, the Spirit of the Blue Dragon Star, was Têng Chiu-kung,
one of the chief generals of the last emperor of the Yin dynasty. He
had a son named Têng Hsiu, and a daughter named Ch'an-yü.

The army of Têng Chiu-kung was camped at San-shan Kuan, when he
received orders to proceed to the battle then taking place at Hsi
Ch'i. There, in standing up to No-cha and Huang Fei-hu, he had his
left arm broken by the former's magic bracelet, but, fortunately for
him, his subordinate, T'u Hsing-sun, a renowned magician, gave him
a remedy which quickly healed the fracture.

His daughter then came on the scene to avenge her father. She had a
magic weapon, the Five-fire Stone, which she hurled full in the face
of Yang Chien. But the Immortal was not wounded; on the other hand,
his celestial dog jumped at Ch'an-yü and bit her neck, so that she
was obliged to flee. T'u Hsing-sun, however, healed the wound.

After a banquet, Têng Chiu-kung promised his daughter in marriage to
T'u Hsing-sun if he would gain him the victory at Hsi Ch'i. Chiang
Tzu-ya then persuaded T'u's magic master, Chü Liu-sun, to call his
disciple over to his camp, where he asked him why he was fighting
against the new dynasty. "Because," he replied, "Chiu-kung has promised
me his daughter in marriage as a reward of success." Chiang Tzu-ya
thereupon promised to obtain the bride, and sent a force to seize
her. As a result of the fighting that ensued, Chiu-kung was beaten,
and retreated in confusion, leaving Ch'an-yü in the hands of the
victors. During the next few days the marriage was celebrated with
great ceremony in the victor's camp. According to custom, the bride
returned for some days to her father's house, and while there she
earnestly exhorted Chiu-kung to submit. Following her advice, he went
over to Chiang Tzu-ya's party.

In the ensuing battles he fought valiantly on the side of his former
enemy, and killed many famous warriors, but he was eventually attacked
by the Blower, from whose mouth a column of yellow gas struck him,
throwing him from his steed. He was made prisoner, and executed by
order of General Ch'iu Yin. Chiang Tzu-ya conferred on him the kingdom
of the Blue Dragon Star.

The Spirit of the White Tiger Star is Yin Ch'êng-hsiu. His father,
Yin P'o-pai, a high courtier of the tyrant Chou Wang, was sent to
negotiate peace with Chiang Tzu-ya, but was seized and put to death by
Marquis Chiang Wên-huan. His son, attempting to avenge his father's
murder, was pierced by a spear, and his head was cut off and carried
in triumph to Chiang Tzu-ya.

As compensation he was, though somewhat tardily, canonized as the
Spirit of the White Tiger Star.


Apotheosized Philosophers

The philosophers Lieh Tzu, Huai-nan Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Mo Tzu, etc.,
have also been apotheosized. Nothing very remarkable is related
of them. Most of them had several reincarnations and possessed
supernatural powers. The second, who was a king, when taken by
the Eight Immortals to the genii's Heaven forgot now and then to
address them as superiors, and but for their intercession with
Yü Ti, the Pearly Emperor, would have been reincarnated. In order
to humiliate himself, he thereafter called himself Huai-nan Tzu,
'the Sage of the South of the Huai.' The third, Chuang Tzu, Chuang
Shêng, or Chuang Chou, was a disciple of Lao Tzu. Chuang Tzu was in
the habit of sleeping during the day, and at night would transform
himself into a butterfly, which fluttered gaily over the flowers in
the garden. On waking, he would still feel the sensation of flying in
his shoulders. On asking Lao Tzu the reason for this, he was told:
"Formerly you were a white butterfly which, having partaken of the
quintessence of flowers and of the _yin_ and the _yang_, should have
been immortalized; but one day you stole some peaches and flowers in
Wang Mu Niang-niang's garden. The guardian of the garden slew you,
and that is how you came to be reincarnated." At this time he was
fifty years of age.


Fanning the Grave

One of the tales associated with him describes how he saw a young
woman in mourning vigorously fanning a newly made grave. On his asking
her the reason of this strange conduct, she replied: "I am doing this
because my husband begged me to wait until the earth on his tomb was
dry before I remarried!" Chuang Tzu offered to help her, and as soon
as he waved the fan once the earth was dry. The young widow thanked
him and departed.

On his return home, Chuang Shêng related this incident to his
wife. She expressed astonishment at such conduct on the part of a
wife. "There's nothing to be surprised at," rejoined the husband;
"that's how things go in this world." Seeing that he was poking fun
at her, she protested angrily. Some little time after this Chuang
Shêng died. His wife, much grieved, buried him.


Husband and Wife

A few days later a young man named Ch'u Wang-sun arrived with the
intention, as he said, of placing himself under the instruction of
Chuang Shêng. When he heard that he was dead he went and performed
prostrations before his tomb, and afterward took up his abode in an
empty room, saying that he wished to study. After half a month had
elapsed, the widow asked an old servant who had accompanied Wang-sun
if the young man was married. On his replying in the negative, she
requested the old servant to propose a match between them. Wang-sun
made some objections, saying that people would criticize their
conduct. "Since my husband is dead, what can they say?" replied
the widow. She then put off her mourning-garments and prepared for
the wedding.

Wang-sun took her to the grave of her husband, and said to her:
"The gentleman has returned to life!" She looked at Wang-sun and
recognized the features of her husband. She was so overwhelmed with
shame that she hanged herself. Chuang Shêng buried her in an empty
tomb, and then began to sing.

He burnt his house, went away to P'u-shui, in Hupei, and occupied
himself in fishing. From there he went on to Chung-t'iao Shan, where
he met Fêng Hou and her teacher Hsüan Nü, the Mother of Heaven. In
their company he visited the palaces of the stars. One day, when he
was attending a banquet at the palace of Wang-mu, Shang Ti gave him as
his kingdom the planet Jupiter, and assigned to him as his palace the
ancient abode of Mao Mêng, the stellar god reincarnated during the Chou
dynasty. He had not yet returned, and had left his palace empty. Shang
Ti had cautioned him never to absent himself without his permission.


Canonized Generalissimos

A large number of military men also have been canonized as celestial
generalissimos. A few will serve as examples of the rest.



The Three Musical Brothers

There were three brothers: T'ien Yüan-shuai, the eldest; T'ien Hung-i,
the second; and T'ien Chih-piao, the youngest. They were all musicians
of unsurpassed talent.

In the K'ai-yüan Period (A.D. 713-42) the Emperor Hsüan Tsung, of
the T'ang dynasty, appointed them his music masters. At the sound of
their wonderful flute the clouds in the sky stopped in their courses;
the harmony of their songs caused the odoriferous _la mei_ flower to
open in winter. They excelled also in songs and dances.

The Emperor fell sick. He saw in a dream the three brothers
accompanying their singing on a mandolin and violin. The harmony of
their songs charmed his ear, and on waking he found himself well
again. Out of gratitude for this benefit he conferred on each the
title of marquis.

The Grand Master of the Taoists was trying to stay the ravages
of a pestilence, but he could not conquer the devils which caused
it. Under these circumstances he appealed to the three brothers and
asked their advice as to what course to adopt. T'ien Yüan-shuai had a
large boat built, called 'Spirit-boat.' He assembled in it a million
spirits, and ordered them to beat drums. On hearing this tumult all
the demons of the town came out to listen. T'ien Yüan-shuai, seizing
the opportunity, captured them all and, with the help of the Grand
Master, expelled them from the town.

Besides the canonization of the three T'ien brothers, all the members
of their families received posthumous titles.



The Dragon-boat Festival

This is said to be the origin of the dragon-boats which are to be
seen on all the waterways of China on the fifth day of the fifth
moon. [21] The Festival of the Dragon-boats, held on that day, was
instituted in memory of the statesman-poet Ch'ü Yüan (332-296 B.C.),
who drowned himself in the Mi-lo River, an affluent of the Tung-t'ing
Lake, after having been falsely accused by one of the petty princes
of the State. The people, out of pity for the unfortunate courtier,
sent out these boats in search of his body.


Chiang Tzu-ya

In the wars which resulted in the overthrow of the tyrant Chou Wang
and his dynasty and the establishment of the great Chou dynasty,
the most influential generalissimo was Chiang Tzu-ya. His family name
was Chiang, and his own name Shang, but owing to his descent from one
of the ministers of the ancient King Yao, whose heirs owned the fief
of Lü, the family came to be called by that name, and he himself was
known as Lü Shang. His honorific title was T'ai Kung Wang, 'Hope of
T'ai Kung,' given him by Wên Wang, who recognized in the person of
Chiang Tzu-ya the wise minister whom his father T'ai Kung had caused
him to expect before his death.


The Battle of Mu Yeh

Chiang Tzu-ya was originally in the service of the tyrant Chou Wang,
but transferred his services to the Chou cause, and by his wonderful
skill enabled that house finally to gain the victory. The decisive
battle took place at Mu Yeh, situated to the south of Wei-hui Fu,
in 1122 B.C. The soldiers of Yin, 700,000 in number, were defeated,
and Chou, the tyrant, shut himself up in his magnificent palace, set
it alight, and was burned alive with all his possessions. For this
achievement Chiang Tzu-ya was granted by Wu Wang the title of Father
and Counsellor, and was appointed Prince of Ch'i, with perpetual
succession to his descendants.


A Legend of Chiang Tzu-ya

The _Feng shên yen i_ contains many chapters describing in detail the
various battles which resulted in the overthrow of the last tyrant
of the Shang dynasty and the establishment of the illustrious Chou
dynasty on the throne of China. This legend and the following one
are epitomized from that work.


No-cha defeats Chang Kuei-fang

The redoubtable No-cha having, by means of his Heaven-and-earth
Bracelet, vanquished Fêng Lin, a star-god and subordinate officer of
Chang Kuei-fang, in spite of the black smoke-clouds which he blew
out of his nostrils, the defeated warrior fled and sought the aid
of his chief, who fought No-cha in some thirty to forty encounters
without succeeding in dislodging him from his Wind-fire Wheel,
which enabled him to move about rapidly and to perform prodigious
feats, such as causing hosts of silver flying dragons like clouds of
snow to descend upon his enemy. During one of these fights No-cha
heard his name called three times, but paid no heed. Finally, with
his Heaven-and-earth Bracelet he broke Chang Kuei-fang's left arm,
following this up by shooting out some dazzling rays of light which
knocked him off his horse.

When he returned to the city to report his victory to Tzu-ya,
the latter asked him if during the battle Kuei-fang had called
his name. "Yes," replied No-cha, "he called, but I took no heed
of him." "When Kuei-fang calls," said Tzu-ya, "the _hun_ and the
_p'o_ [_anima_ and _umbra_] become separated, and so the body
falls apart." "But," replied No-cha, "I had changed myself into a
lotus-flower, which has neither _hun_ nor _p'o_, so he could not
succeed in getting me off my magic wheel."


Tzu-ya goes to K'un-lun

Tzu-ya, however, still uncertain in mind about the finality of No-cha's
victories, went to consult Wu Wang (whose death had not yet taken
place at this time). After the interview Tzu-ya informed Wu Wang of
his wish to visit K'un-lun Mountain. Wu Wang warned him of the danger
of leaving the kingdom with the enemy so near the capital; but Tzu-ya
obtained his consent by saying he would be absent only three days
at most. So he gave instructions regarding the defence to No-cha,
and went off in his spirit chariot to K'un-lun. On his arrival at the
Unicorn Precipice he was much enraptured with the beautiful scenery,
the colours, flowers, trees, bridges, birds, deer, apes, blue lions,
white elephants, etc., all of which seemed to make earth surpass
Heaven in loveliness.


He receives the List of Immortals

From the Unicorn Precipice he went on to the Jade Palace of
Abstraction. Here he was presented to Yüan-shih. From him he received
the List of Promotions to Immortals, which Nan-chi Hsien-wêng,
'Ancient Immortal of the South Pole,' had brought, and was told to
go and erect a Fêng Shên T'ai (Spirits' Promotion Terrace) on which
to exhibit it. Yüan-shih also warned him that if anyone called him
while he was on the way he was to be most careful not to answer. On
reaching the Unicorn Precipice on his way back, he heard some one
call: "Chiang Tzu-ya!" This happened three times without his paying
any heed. Then the voice was heard to say: "Now that you are Prime
Minister, how devoid of feeling and forgetful of bygone benefits you
must be not to remember one who studied with you in the Jade Palace
of Abstraction!" Tzu-ya could not but turn his head and look. He
then saw that it was Shên Kung-pao. He said: "Brother, I did not know
it was you who were calling me, and I did not heed you as Shih-tsun
told me on no account to reply." Shên Kung-pao said: "What is that
you hold in your hand?" He told him it was the List of Promotions
to Immortals. Shên Kung-pao then tried to entice Tzu-ya from his
allegiance to Chou. Among Shên's tactics was that of convincing
Tzu-ya of the superiority of the magical arts at the disposal of
the supporters of Chou Wang. "You," he said, "can drain the sea,
change the hills, and suchlike things, but what are those compared
with my powers, who can take off my head, make it mount into space,
travel 10,000,000 _li_, and return to my neck just as complete as
before and able to speak? Burn your List of Promotions to Immortals
and come with me." Tzu-ya, thinking that a head which could travel
10,000,000 _li_ and be the same as before was exceedingly rare, said:
"Brother, you take your head off, and if in reality it can do as you
say, rise into space and return and be as before, I shall be willing to
burn the List of Promotions to Immortals and return with you to Chao
Ko." Shên Kung-pao said: "You will not go back on your word?" Tzu-ya
said: "When your elder brother has spoken his word is as unchangeable
as Mount T'ai, How can there be any going back on my word?"


The Soaring Head

Shên Kung-pao then doffed his Taoist cap, seized his sword, with his
left hand firmly grasped the blue thread binding his hair, and with
his right cut off his head. His body did not fall down. He then took
his head and threw it up into space. Tzu-ya gazed with upturned face
as it continued to rise, and was sorely puzzled. But the Ancient
Immortal of the South Pole had kept a watch on the proceedings. He
said: "Tzu-ya is a loyal and honest man; it looks as if he has been
deceived by this charlatan." He ordered White Crane Youth to assume
quickly the form of a crane and fetch Shên Kung-pao's head.


The Ancient Immortal saves the Situation

Tzu-ya was still gazing upward when he felt a slap on his back
and, turning round, saw that it was the Ancient Immortal of the
South Pole. Tzu-ya quickly asked: "My elder brother, why have you
returned?" Hsien-wêng said: "You are a fool. Shên Kung-pao is a
man of unholy practices. These few small tricks of his you take as
realities. But if the head does not return to the neck within an hour
and three-quarters the blood will coagulate and he will die. Shih-tsun
ordered you not to reply to anyone; why did you not hearken to
his words? From the Jade Palace of Abstraction I saw you speaking
together, and knew you had promised to burn the List of Promotions to
Immortals. So I ordered White Crane Youth to bring me the head. After
an hour and three-quarters Shên Kung-pao will be recompensed."

Tzu-ya said: "My elder brother, since you know all you can pardon
him. In the Taoist heart there is no place where mercy cannot be
exercised. Remember the many years during which he has faithfully
followed the Path."

Eventually the Ancient Immortal was persuaded, but in the meantime
Shên Kung-pao, finding that his head did not return, became very much
troubled in mind. In an hour and three-quarters the blood would stop
flowing and he would die. However, Tzu-ya having succeeded in his
intercession with the Ancient Immortal, the latter signed to White
Crane Youth, who was flying in space with the head in his beak, to
let it drop. He did so, but when it reached the neck it was facing
backward. Shên Kung-pao quickly put up his hand, took hold of an ear,
and turned his head the right way round. He was then able to open
his eyes, when he saw the Ancient Immortal of the South Pole. The
latter arraigned him in a loud voice saying: "You as-good-as-dead
charlatan, who by means of corrupt tricks try to deceive Tzu-ya and
make him burn the List of Immortals and help Chou Wang against Chou,
what do you mean by all this? You should be taken to the Jade Palace
of Abstraction to be punished!"

Shên Kung-pao, ashamed, could not reply; mounting his tiger, he made
off; but as he left he hurled back a threat that the Chou would yet
have their white bones piled mountains high at Hsi Ch'i. Subsequently
Tzu-ya, carefully preserving the precious List, after many adventures
succeeded in building the Fêng Shên T'ai, and posted the List up on
it. Having accomplished his mission, he returned in time to resist
the capture of Hsi Ch'i by Chang Kuei-fang, whose troops were defeated
with great slaughter.



Ch'iung Hsiao's Magic Scissors

In another of the many conflicts between the two rival states Lao Tzu
entered the battle, whereupon Ch'iung Hsiao, a goddess who fought for
the house of Shang (Chou), hurled into the air her gold scaly-dragon
scissors. As these slowly descended, opening and closing in a most
ominous manner, Lao Tzu waved the sleeve of his jacket and they fell
into the sea and became absolutely motionless. Many similar tricks
were used by the various contestants. The Gold Bushel of Chaotic
Origin succumbed to the Wind-fire Sphere, and so on. Ch'iung Hsiao
resumed the attack with some magic two-edged swords, but was killed
by a blow from White Crane Youth's Three-precious Jade Sceptre, hurled
at her by Lao Tzu's orders. Pi Hsiao, her sister, attempted to avenge
her death, but Yüan-shih, producing from his sleeve a magical box,
threw it into the air and caught Pi Hsiao in it. When it was opened
it was found that she had melted into blood and water.


Chiang Tzu-ya defeats Wên Chung

After this Lao Tzu rallied many of the skilful spirits to help Chiang
Tzu-ya in his battle with Wên Chung, providing them with the Ancient
Immortal of the South Pole's Sand-blaster and an earth-conquering light
which enabled them to travel a thousand _li_ in a day. From the hot
sand used the contest became known as the Red Sand Battle. Jan Têng,
on P'êng-lai Mountain, in consultation with Tzu-ya, also arranged
the plan of battle.


The Red Sand Battle

The fight began with a challenge from the Ancient Immortal of the
South Pole to Chang Shao. The latter, riding his deer, dashed into
the fray, and aimed a terrific blow with his sword at Hsien-wêng's
head, but White Crane Youth warded it off with his Three-precious Jade
Sceptre. Chang then produced a two-edged sword and renewed the attack,
but, being disarmed, dismounted from his deer and threw several
handfuls of hot sand at Hsien-wêng. The latter, however, easily
fanned them away with his Five-fire Seven-feathers Fan, rendering
them harmless. Chang then fetched a whole bushel of the hot sand and
scattered it over the enemy, but Hsien-wêng counteracted the menace
by merely waving his fan. White Crane Youth struck Chang Shao with
his jade sceptre, knocking him off his horse, and then dispatched
him with his two-edged sword.

After this battle Wu Wang was found to be already dead. Jan Têng
on learning this ordered Lei Chên-tzu to take the corpse to Mount
P'êng and wash it. He then dissolved a pill in water and poured the
solution into Wu Wang's mouth, whereupon he revived and was escorted
back to his palace.


Further Fighting

Preparations were then made for resuming the attack on Wên
Chung. While the latter was consulting with Ts'ai-yün Hsien-tzu and
Han Chih-hsien, he heard the sound of the Chou guns and the thunder of
their troops. Wên Chung, mounting his black unicorn, galloped like a
whiff of smoke to meet Tzu-ya, but was stopped by blows from two silver
hammers wielded by Huang T'ien-hua. Han Chih-hsien came to Wên's aid,
but was opposed by Pi Hsiang-yang. Ts'ai-yün Hsien-tzu dashed into
the fray, but No-cha stepped on to his Wind-fire Wheel and opposed
him. From all sides other Immortals joined in the terrific battle,
which was a turmoil of longbows and crossbows, iron armour and brass
mail, striking whips and falling hammers, weapons cleaving mail and
mail resisting weapons. In this fierce contest, while Tzu-ya was
fighting Wên Chung, Han Chih-hsien released a black wind from his
magic wind-bag, but he did not know that the Taoist Barge of Mercy
(which transports departed souls to the land of bliss), sent by
Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy, had on board the Stop-wind Pearl,
by which the black storm was immediately quelled. Thereupon Tzu-ya
quickly seized his Vanquish-spirits Whip and struck Han Chih-hsien
in the middle of the skull, so that the brain-fluid gushed forth and
he died. No-cha then slew Ts'ai-yün Hsien-tzu with a spear-thrust.

Thus the stern fight went on, until finally Tzu-ya, under cover
of night, attacked Wên Chung's troops simultaneously on all four
sides. The noise of slaughter filled the air. Generals and rank and
file, lanterns, torches, swords, spears, guns, and daggers were one
confused _mêlée_; Heaven could scarcely be distinguished from earth,
and corpses were piled mountains high.

Tzu-ya, having broken through seven lines of the enemy's ranks,
forced his way into Wên Chung's camp. The latter mounted his unicorn,
and brandishing his magic whip dashed to meet him. Tzu-ya drew
his sword and stopped his onrush, being aided by Lung Hsü-hu, who
repeatedly cast a rain of hot stones on to the troops. In the midst
of the fight Tzu-ya brought out his great magic whip, and in spite
of Wên Chung's efforts to avoid it succeeded in wounding him in the
left arm. The Chou troops were fighting like dragons lashing their
tails and pythons curling their bodies. To add to their disasters,
the Chou now saw flames rising behind the camp, and knew that their
provisions were being burned by Yang Chien.

The Chou armies, with gongs beating and drums rolling, advanced for a
final effort, the slaughter being so great that even the devils wept
and the spirits wailed. Wên Chung was eventually driven back seventy
_li_ to Ch'i Hill. His troops could do nothing but sigh and stumble
along. He made for Peach-blossom Range, but as he approached it he
saw a yellow banner hoisted, and under it was Kuang Ch'êng-tzu. Being
prevented from escaping in that direction he joined battle, but by
use of red-hot sand, his two-edged sword, and his Turn-heaven Seal
Kuang Ch'êng-tzu put him to flight. He then made off toward the
west, followed by Têng Chung. His design was to make for Swallow
Hill, which he reached after several days of weary marching. Here
he saw another yellow banner flying, and Ch'ih Ching-tzu informed
him that Jan Têng had forbidden him to stop at Swallow Hill or to
go through the Five Passes. This led to another pitched battle,
Wên Chung using his magic whip and Ch'ih his spiritual two-edged
sword. After several bouts Ch'ih brought out his _yin-yang_ mirror,
by use of which irresistible weapon Wên was driven to Yellow Flower
Hill and Blue Dragon Pass, and so on from battle to battle, until he
was drawn up to Heaven from the top of Dead-dragon Mountain.


Thousand-li Eye and Favourable-wind Ear

Ch'ien-li Yen, 'Thousand-_li_ Eye,' and Shun-fêng Êrh, 'Favourable-wind
Ear,' were two brothers named Kao Ming and Kao Chio. On account
of their martial bearing they found favour with the tyrant emperor
Chou Wang, who appointed them generals, and sent them to serve with
Generalissimo Yüan Hung (who was a monkey which had taken human form)
at Mêng-ching.

Kao Ming was very tall, with a blue face, flaming eyes, a large mouth,
and prominent teeth like those of a rhinoceros.

Kao Chio had a greenish face and skin, two horns on his head, a red
beard, and a large mouth with teeth shaped like swords.

One of their first encounters was with No-cha, who hurled at them his
mystic bracelet, which struck Kao Chio on the head, but did not leave
even a scratch. When, however, he seized his fire-globe the brothers
thought it wiser to retreat.

Finding no means of conquering them, Yang Chien, Chiang Tzu-ya, and
Li Ching took counsel together and decided to have recourse to Fu
Hsi's trigrams, and by smearing them with the blood of a fowl and a
dog to destroy their spiritual power.

But the two brothers were fully informed of what was
designed. Thousand-_li_ Eye had seen and Favourable-wind Ear had
heard everything, so that all their preparations proved unavailing.

Yang Chien then went to Chiang Tzu-ya and said to him: "These
two brothers are powerful devils; I must take more effectual
measures." "Where will you go for aid?" asked Chiang Tzu-ya. "I
cannot tell you, for they would hear," replied Yang. He then
left. Favourable-wind Ear heard this dialogue, and Thousand-_li_
Eye saw him leave. "He did not say where he was going," they said
to each other, "but we fear him not." Yang Chien went to Yü-ch'üan
Shan, where lived Yü-ting Chên-jên, 'Hero Jade-tripod.' He told him
about their two adversaries, and asked him how they were to conquer
them. "These two genii," replied the Chên-jên, "are from Ch'i-p'an
Shan, Chessboard Mountain. One is a spiritual peach-tree, the other
a spiritual pomegranate-tree. Their roots cover an area of thirty
square _li_ of ground. On that mountain there is a temple dedicated to
Huang-ti, in which are clay images of two devils called Ch'ien-li Yen
and Shun-fêng Êrh. The peach-tree and pomegranate-tree, having become
spiritual beings, have taken up their abode in these images. One has
eyes which can see objects distinctly at a distance of a thousand _li_,
the other ears that can hear sounds at a like distance. But beyond
that distance they can neither see nor hear. Return and tell Chiang
Tzu-ya to have the roots of those trees torn up and burned, and the
images destroyed; then the two genii will be easily vanquished. In
order that they may neither see nor hear you during your conversation
with Chiang Tzu-ya, wave flags about the camp and order the soldiers
to beat tom-toms and drums."


How the Brothers were Defeated

Yang Chien returned to Chiang Tzu-ya. "What have you been doing?" asked
the latter. Before replying Yang Chien went to the camp and ordered
soldiers to wave large red flags and a thousand others to beat the
tom-toms and drums. The air was so filled with the flags and the
noise that nothing else could be either seen or heard. Under cover of
this device Yang Chien then communicated to Chiang Tzu-ya the course
advised by the Chên-jên.

Accordingly Li Ching at the head of three thousand soldiers proceeded
to Ch'i-p'an Shan, pulled up and burned the roots of the two trees,
and broke the images to pieces. At the same time Lei Chên-tzu was
ordered to attack the two genii.

Thousand-_li_ Eye and Favourable-wind Ear could neither see nor hear:
the flags effectually screened the horizon and the infernal noise of
the drums and gongs deadened all other sound. They did not know how
to stop them.

The following night Yüan Hung decided to take the camp of Chiang
Tzu-ya by assault, and sent the brothers in advance. They were,
however, themselves surprised by Wu Wang's officers, who surrounded
them. Chiang Tzu-ya then threw into the air his 'devil-chaser' whip,
which fell on the two scouts and cleft their skulls in twain.


Celestial Ministries

The dualistic idea, already referred to, of the Otherworld being
a replica of this one is nowhere more clearly illustrated than in
the celestial Ministries or official Bureaux or Boards, with their
chiefs and staffs functioning over the spiritual hierarchies. The Nine
Ministries up aloft doubtless had their origin in imitation of the Six,
Eight, or Nine Ministries or Boards which at various periods of history
have formed the executive part of the official hierarchy in China. But
their names are different and their functions do not coincide.

Generally, the functions of the officers of the celestial Boards are
to protect mankind from the evils represented in the title of the
Board, as, for example, thunder, smallpox, fire, etc. In all cases
the duties seem to be remedial. As the God of War was, as we saw, the
god who protects people from the evils of war, so the vast hierarchy
of these various divinities is conceived as functioning for the good
of mankind. Being too numerous for inclusion here, an account of them
is given under various headings in some of the following chapters.


Protectors of the People

Besides the gods who hold definite official posts in these various
Ministries, there are a very large number who are also protecting
patrons of the people; and, though _ex officio_, in many cases quite
as popular and powerful, if not more so. Among the most important
are the following: Shê-chi, Gods of the Soil and Crops; Shên Nung,
God of Agriculture; Hou-t'u, Earth-mother; Ch'êng-huang, City-god;
T'u-ti, Local Gods; Tsao Chün, Kitchen-god; T'ien-hou and An-kung,
Goddess and God of Sailors; Ts'an Nü, Goddess of Silkworms; Pa-ch'a,
God of Grasshoppers; Fu Shên, Ts'ai Shên, and Shou Hsing, Gods of
Happiness, Wealth, and Longevity; Mên Shên, Door-gods; and Shê-mo Wang,
etc., the Gods of Serpents.


The Ch'êng-huang

Ch'êng-huang is the Celestial Mandarin or City-god. Every fortified
city or town in China is surrounded by a wall, _ch'êng_, composed
usually of two battlemented walls, the space between which is filled
with earth. This earth is dug from the ground outside, making a ditch,
or _huang_, running parallel with the _ch'êng_. The Ch'êng-huang
is the spiritual official of the city or town. All the numerous
Ch'êng-huang constitute a celestial Ministry of Justice, presided
over by a Ch'êng-huang-in-chief.

The origin of the worship of the Ch'êng-huang dates back to the time
of the great Emperor Yao (2357 B.C.), who instituted a sacrifice called
Pa Cha in honour of eight spirits, of whom the seventh, Shui Yung, had
the meaning of, or corresponded to, the dyke and rampart known later
as Ch'êng-huang. Since the Sung dynasty sacrifices have been offered
to the Ch'êng-huang all over the country, though now and then some
towns have adopted another or special god as their Ch'êng-huang, such
as Chou Hsin, adopted as the Ch'êng-huang of Hangchou, the capital of
Chekiang Province. Concerning Chou Hsin, who had a "face of ice and
iron," and was so much dreaded for his severity that old and young
fled at his approach, it is related that once when he was trying a
case a storm blew some leaves on to his table. In spite of diligent
search the tree to which this kind of leaf belonged could not be found
anywhere in the neighbourhood, but was eventually discovered in a
Buddhist temple a long way off. The judge declared that the priests
of this temple must be guilty of murder. By his order the tree was
felled, and in its trunk was found the body of a woman who had been
assassinated, and the priests were convicted of the murder.


The Kitchen-god

Tsao Chün is a Taoist invention, but is universally worshipped by
all families in China--about sixty millions of pictures of him are
regularly worshipped twice a month--at new and full moon. "His temple
is a little niche in the brick cooking-range; his palace is often
filled with smoke; and his Majesty sells for one farthing." He is also
called 'the God of the Stove.' The origin of his worship, according to
the legend, is that a Taoist priest, Li Shao-chün by name, of the Ch'i
State, obtained from the Kitchen-god the double favour of exemption
from growing old and of being able to live without eating. He then
went to the Emperor Hsiao Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) of the Han dynasty, and
promised that credulous monarch that he should benefit by the powers
of the god provided that he would consent to patronize and encourage
his religion. It was by this means, he added, that the Emperor Huang
Ti obtained his knowledge of alchemy, which enabled him to make gold.

The Emperor asked the priest to bring him his divine patron, and one
night the image of Tsao Chün appeared to him.

Deceived by this trick, dazzled by the ingots of gold which he too
should obtain, and determined to risk everything for the pill of
immortality which was among the benefits promised, the Emperor made
a solemn sacrifice to the God of the Kitchen.

This was the first time that a sacrifice had been officially offered
to this new deity.

Li Shao-chün gradually lost the confidence of the Emperor and, at
his wits' end, conceived the plan of writing some phrases on a piece
of silk and then causing them to be swallowed by an ox. This done,
he announced that a wonderful script would be found in the animal's
stomach. The ox being killed, the script was found there as predicted,
but Li's unlucky star decreed that the Emperor should recognize
his handwriting, and he was forthwith put to death. Nevertheless,
the worship of the Kitchen-god continued and increased, and exists
in full vigour down to the present day.

This deity has power over the lives of the members of each family
under his supervision, distributes riches and poverty at will, and
makes an annual report to the Supreme Being on the conduct of the
family during the year, for which purpose he is usually absent for from
four to seven days. Some hold that he also makes these reports once or
twice or several times each month. Various ceremonies are performed on
seeing him off to Heaven and welcoming him back. One of the former,
as we saw, is to regale him with honey, so that only sweet words,
if any, may be spoken by him while up aloft!


Ts'an Nü

In the kingdom of Shu (modern Ssuch'uan), in the time of Kao Hsing
Ti, a band of robbers kidnapped the father of Ts'an Nü. A whole year
elapsed, and the father's horse still remained in the stable as he
had left it. The thought of not seeing her father again caused Ts'an
Nü such grief that she would take no nourishment. Her mother did
what she could to console her, and further promised her in marriage
to anyone who would bring back her father. But no one was found who
could do this. Hearing the offer, the horse stamped with impatience,
and struggled so much that at length he broke the halter by which
he was tied up. He then galloped away and disappeared. Several days
later, his owner returned riding the horse. From that time the horse
neighed incessantly, and refused all food. This caused the mother
to make known to her husband the promise she had made concerning her
daughter. "An oath made to men," he replied, "does not hold good for
a horse. Is a human being meant to live in marital relations with
a horse?" Nevertheless, however good and abundant food they offered
him, the horse would not eat. When he saw the young lady he plunged
and kicked furiously. Losing his temper, the father discharged an
arrow and killed him on the spot; then he skinned him and spread the
skin on the ground outside the house to dry. As the young lady was
passing the spot the skin suddenly moved, rose up, enveloped her,
and disappeared into space. Ten days later it was found at the foot
of a mulberry-tree; Ts'an Nü changed into a silkworm, was eating the
mulberry-leaves, and spinning for herself a silken garment.

The parents of course were in despair. But one day, while they were
overwhelmed with sad thoughts, they saw on a cloud Ts'an Nü riding
the horse and attended by several dozens of servants. She descended
toward her parents, and said to them: "The Supreme Being, as a reward
for my martyrdom in the cause of filial piety and my love of virtue,
has conferred on me the dignity of Concubine of the Nine Palaces. Be
reassured as to my fate, for in Heaven I shall live for ever." Having
said this she disappeared into space.

In the temples her image is to be seen covered with a horse's
skin. She is called Ma-t'ou Niang, 'the Lady with the Horse's
Head,' and is prayed to for the prosperity of mulberry-trees and
silkworms. The worship continues even in modern times. The goddess
is also represented as a stellar divinity, the star T'ien Ssu; as
the first man who reared silkworms, in this character bearing the
same name as the God of Agriculture, Pasture, and Fire; and as the
wife of the Emperor Huang Ti.


The God of Happiness

The God of Happiness, Fu Shên, owes his origin to the predilection
of the Emperor Wu Ti (A.D. 502-50) of the Liang dynasty for dwarfs as
servants and comedians in his palace. The number levied from the Tao
Chou district in Hunan became greater and greater, until it seriously
prejudiced the ties of family relations. When Yang Ch'êng, _alias_
Yang Hsi-chi, was Criminal Judge of Tao Chou he represented to the
Emperor that, according to law, the dwarfs were his subjects but not
his slaves. Being touched by this remark, the Emperor ordered the
levy to be stopped.

Overjoyed at their liberation from this hardship, the people
of that district set up images of Yang and offered sacrifices to
him. Everywhere he was venerated as the Spirit of Happiness. It was in
this simple way that there came into being a god whose portraits and
images abound everywhere throughout the country, and who is worshipped
almost as universally as the God of Riches himself.

Another person who attained to the dignity of God of Happiness (known
as Tsêng-fu Hsiang-kung, 'the Young Gentleman who Increases Happiness')
was Li Kuei-tsu, the minister of Emperor Wên Ti of the Wei dynasty,
the son of the famous Ts'ao Ts'ao, but in modern times the honour
seems to have passed to Kuo Tzu-i. He was the saviour of the T'ang
dynasty from the depredations of the Turfans in the reign of the
Emperor Hsüan Tsung. He lived A.D. 697-781, was a native of Hua Chou,
in Shensi, and one of the most illustrious of Chinese generals. He
is very often represented in pictures clothed in blue official robes,
leading his small son Kuo Ai to Court.


The God of Wealth

As with many other Chinese gods, the proto-being of the God of Wealth,
Ts'ai Shên, has been ascribed to several persons. The original and
best known until later times was Chao Kung-ming. The accounts of him
differ also, but the following is the most popular.

When Chiang Tzu-ya was fighting for Wu Wang of the Chou dynasty
against the last of the Shang emperors, Chao Kung-ming, then a
hermit on Mount Ô-mei, took the part of the latter. He performed
many wonderful feats. He could ride a black tiger and hurl pearls
which burst like bombshells. But he was eventually overcome by the
form of witchcraft known in Wales as _Ciurp Creadh_. Chiang Tzu-ya
made a straw image of him, wrote his name on it, burned incense and
worshipped before it for twenty days, and on the twenty-first shot
arrows made of peach-wood into its eyes and heart. At that same
moment Kung-ming, then in the enemy's camp, felt ill and fainted,
and uttering a cry gave up the ghost.

Later on Chiang Tzu-ya persuaded Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun to release from
the Otherworld the spirits of the heroes who had died in battle,
and when Chao Kung-ming was led into his presence he praised his
bravery, deplored the circumstances of his death, and canonized him
as President of the Ministry of Riches and Prosperity.

The God of Riches is universally worshipped in China; images and
portraits of him are to be seen everywhere. Talismans, trees of which
the branches are strings of cash, and the fruits ingots of gold,
to be obtained merely by shaking them down, a magic inexhaustible
casket full of gold and silver--these and other spiritual sources
of wealth are associated with this much-adored deity. He himself
is represented in the guise of a visitor accompanied by a crowd of
attendants laden with all the treasures that the hearts of men, women,
and children could desire.


The God of Longevity

The God of Longevity, Shou Hsing, was first a stellar deity, later on
represented in human form. It was a constellation formed of the two
star-groups Chio and K'ang, the first two on the list of twenty-eight
constellations. Hence, say the Chinese writers, because of this
precedence, it was called the Star of Longevity. When it appears the
nation enjoys peace, when it disappears there will be war. Ch'in Shih
Huang-ti, the First Emperor, was the first to offer sacrifices to this
star, the Old Man of the South Pole, at Shê Po, in 246 B.C. Since then
the worship has been continued pretty regularly until modern times.

But desire for something more concrete, or at least more personal,
than a star led to the god's being represented as an old man. Connected
with this is a long legend which turns on the point that after the
father of Chao Yen had been told by the celebrated physiognomist
Kuan Lo that his son would not live beyond the age of nineteen, the
transposition from _shih-chiu_, nineteen, to _chiu-shih_, ninety,
was made by one of two gamblers, who turned out to be the Spirit of
the North Pole, who fixes the time of decease, as the Spirit of the
South Pole does that of birth.

The deity is a domestic god, of happy mien, with a very high
forehead, usually spoken of as Shou Hsing Lao T'ou Tzu, 'Longevity
Star Old-pate,' and is represented as riding a stag, with a flying bat
above his head. He holds in his hand a large peach, and attached to his
long staff are a gourd and a scroll. The stag and the bat both indicate
_fu_, happiness. The peach, gourd, and scroll are symbols of longevity.


The Door-gods

An old legend relates that in the earliest times there grew on
Mount Tu Shuo, in the Eastern Sea, a peach-tree of fabulous size
whose branches covered an area of several thousand square _li_. The
lowest branches, which inclined toward the north-east, formed the
Door of the Devils (_kuei_), through which millions of them passed
in and out. Two spirits, named Shên Shu (or Shu Yü) and Yü Lü, had
been instructed to guard this passage. Those who had done wrong to
mankind were immediately bound by them and given over to be devoured
by tigers. When Huang Ti heard of this he had the portraits of the
two spirits painted on peach-wood tablets and hung above the doors to
keep off evil spirits. This led to the suspension of the small figures
or plaques on the doors of the people generally. Gradually they were
supplanted by paintings on paper pasted on the doors, showing the two
spirits armed with bows, arrows, spears, etc., Shên Shu on the left,
Yü Lü on the right.

In later times, however, these Door-gods were supplanted in popular
favour by two ministers of the Emperor T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty,
by name Ch'in Shu-pao and Hu Ching-tê. T'ai Tsung had fallen sick, and
imagined that he heard demons rampaging in his bedroom. The ministers
of State, on inquiring as to the nature of the malady, were informed
by the physician that his Majesty's pulse was feverish, that he seemed
nervous and saw visions, and that his life was in danger.

The ministers were in great fear. The Empress summoned other physicians
to a consultation, and after the sick Emperor had informed them that,
though all was quiet during the daytime, he was sure he saw and heard
demons during the night, Ch'in Shu-pao and Hu Ching-tê stated that
they would sit up all night and watch outside his door.

Accordingly they posted themselves, fully armed, outside the palace
gate all night, and the Emperor slept in peace. Next day the Emperor
thanked them heartily, and from that time his sickness diminished. The
two ministers, however, continued their vigils until the Emperor
informed them that he would no longer impose upon their readiness
to sacrifice themselves. He ordered them to paint their portraits
in full martial array and paste these on the palace doors to see if
that would not have the same effect. For some nights all was peace;
then the same commotion was heard at the back gates of the palace. The
minister Wei Chêng offered to stand guard at the back gates in the
same way that his colleagues had done at the front gates. The result
was that in a few days the Emperor's health was entirely restored.

Thus it is that Wei Chêng is often associated with the other two
Door-gods, sometimes with them, sometimes in place of them. Pictures
of these _mên shên_, elaborately coloured, and renewed at the New Year,
are to be seen on almost every door in China.


Chinese Polytheism

That the names of the gods of China are legion will be readily
conceded when it is said that, besides those already described,
those still to be mentioned, and many others to whom space will not
permit us to refer, there are also gods, goddesses, patrons, etc.,
of wind, rain, snow, frost, rivers, tides, caves, trees, flowers,
theatres, horses, oxen, cows, sheep, goats, dogs, pigs, scorpions,
locusts, gold, tea, salt, compass, archery, bridges, lamps, gems,
wells, carpenters, masons, barbers, tailors, jugglers, nets, wine,
bean-curd, jade, paper-clothing, eye, ear, nose, tongue, teeth,
heart, liver, throat, hands, feet, skin, architecture, rain-clothes,
monkeys, lice, Punch and Judy, fire-crackers, cruelty, revenge, manure,
fornication, shadows, corners, gamblers, oculists, smallpox, liver
complaint, stomach-ache, measles, luck, womb, midwives, hasteners
of child-birth, brigands, butchers, furnishers, centipedes, frogs,
stones, beds, candle-merchants, fishermen, millers, wig-merchants,
incense-merchants, spectacle-makers, cobblers, harness-makers,
seedsmen, innkeepers, basket-makers, chemists, painters, perfumers,
jewellers, brush-makers, dyers, fortune-tellers, strolling singers,
brothels, varnishers, combs, etc., etc. There is a god of the light
of the eye as well as of the eye itself, of smallpox-marks as well as
of smallpox, of 'benign' measles as well as of measles. After reading
a full list of the gods of China, those who insist that the religion
of China was or is a monotheism may be disposed to revise their belief.



CHAPTER V

Myths of the Stars


Astrological Superstitions

According to Chinese ideas, the sun, moon, and planets influence
sublunary events, especially the life and death of human beings, and
changes in their colour menace approaching calamities. Alterations
in the appearance of the sun announce misfortunes to the State or its
head, as revolts, famines, or the death of the emperor; when the moon
waxes red, or turns pale, men should be in awe of the unlucky times
thus fore-omened.

The sun is symbolized by the figure of a raven in a circle, and
the moon by a hare on its hind-legs pounding rice in a mortar, or
by a three-legged toad. The last refers to the legend of Ch'ang Ô,
detailed later. The moon is a special object of worship in autumn,
and moon-cakes dedicated to it are sold at this season. All the
stars are ranged into constellations, and an emperor is installed
over them, who resides at the North Pole; five monarchs also live
in the five stars in Leo, where is a palace called Wu Ti Tso, or
'Throne of the Five Emperors.' In this celestial government there are
also an heir-apparent, empresses, sons and daughters, and tribunals,
and the constellations receive the names of men, animals, and other
terrestrial objects. The Great Bear, or Dipper, is worshipped as the
residence of the Fates, where the duration of life and other events
relating to mankind are measured and meted out. Fears are excited by
unusual phenomena among the heavenly bodies.

Both the sun and the moon are worshipped by the Government in
appropriate temples on the east and west sides of Peking.


Various Star-gods

Some of the star-gods, such as the God of Literature, the Goddess of
the North Star, the Gods of Happiness, Longevity, etc., are noticed
in other parts of this work. The cycle-gods are also star-gods. There
are sixty years in a cycle, and over each of these presides a special
star-deity. The one worshipped is the one which gave light on the
birthday of the worshipper, and therefore the latter burns candles
before that particular image on each succeeding anniversary. These
cycle-gods are represented by most grotesque images: "white, black,
yellow, and red; ferocious gods with vindictive eyeballs popping out,
and gentle faces as expressive as a lump of putty; some looking like
men and some like women." In one temple one of the sixty was in the
form of a hog, and another in that of a goose. "Here is an image
with arms protruding out of his eye-sockets, and eyes in the palms
of his hands, looking downward to see the secret things within the
earth. See that rabbit, Minerva-like, jumping from the divine head;
again a mud-rat emerges from his occipital hiding-place, and lo! a
snake comes coiling from the brain of another god--so the long line
serves as models for an artist who desires to study the fantastic."


Shooting the Heavenly Dog

In the family sleeping-apartments in Chinese houses hang pictures
of Chang Hsien, a white-faced, long-bearded man with a little boy by
his side, and in his hand a bow and arrow, with which he is shooting
the Heavenly Dog. The dog is the Dog-star, and if the 'fate' of the
family is under this star there will be no son, or the child will be
short-lived. Chang Hsien is the patron of child-bearing women, and was
worshipped under the Sung dynasty by women desirous of offspring. The
introduction of this name into the Chinese pantheon is due to an
incident in the history of Hua-jui Fu-jên, a name given to Lady Fei,
concubine of Mêng Ch'ang, the last ruler of the Later Shu State,
A.D. 935-964. When she was brought from Shu to grace the harem of
the founder of the Sung dynasty, in A.D. 960, she is said to have
preserved secretly the portrait of her former lord, the Prince of Shu,
whose memory she passionately cherished. Jealously questioned by her
new consort respecting her devotion to this picture, she declared it
to be the representation of Chang Hsien, the divine being worshipped
by women desirous of offspring. Opinions differ as to the origin
of the worship. One account says that the Emperor Jên Tsung, of the
Sung dynasty, saw in a dream a beautiful young man with white skin
and black hair, carrying a bow in his hand. He said to the Emperor:
"The star T'ien Kou, Heavenly Dog, in the heavens is hiding the
sun and moon, and on earth devouring small children. It is only my
presence which keeps him at bay."

On waking, the Emperor at once ordered the young man's portrait to
be painted and exhibited, and from that time childless families would
write the name Chang Hsien on tablets and worship them.

Another account describes Chang Hsien as the spirit of the star
Chang. In the popular representations Chang Hsien is seen in the
form of a distinguished personage drawing a bow. The spirit of the
star Chang is supposed to preside over the kitchen of Heaven and to
arrange the banquets given by the gods.


The Sun-king

The worship of the sun is part of the State religion, and the officials
make their offerings to the sun-tablet. The moon also is worshipped. At
the harvest moon, the full moon of the eighth month, the Chinese
bow before the heavenly luminary, and each family burns incense as
an offering. Thus "100,000 classes all receive the blessings of the
icy-wheel in the Milky Way along the heavenly street, a mirror always
bright." In Chinese illustrations we see the moon-palace of Ch'ang O,
who stole the pill of immortality and flew to the moon, the fragrant
tree which one of the genii tried to cut down, and a hare pestling
medicine in a mortar. This refers to the following legend.

The sun and the moon are both included by the Chinese among the
stars, the spirit of the former being called T'ai-yang Ti-chün,
'the Sun-king,' or Jih-kung Ch'ih-chiang, 'Ch'ih-chiang of the Solar
Palace,' that of the latter T'ai-yin Huang-chün, 'the Moon-queen,'
or Yüeh-fu Ch'ang O, 'Ch'ang O of the Lunar Palace.'

Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü lived in the reign of Hsien-yüan Huang-ti, who
appointed him Director of Construction and Furnishing.

When Hsien-yüan went on his visit to Ô-mei Shan, a mountain in
Ssuch'uan, Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü obtained permission to accompany
him. Their object was to be initiated into the doctrine of immortality.

The Emperor was instructed in the secrets of the doctrine by T'ai-i
Huang-jên, the spirit of this famous mountain, who, when he was about
to take his departure, begged him to allow Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü to
remain with him. The new hermit went out every day to gather the
flowering plants which formed the only food of his master, T'ai-i
Huang-jên, and he also took to eating these flowers, so that his body
gradually became spiritualized.


The Steep Summit

One day T'ai-i Huang-jên sent him to cut some bamboos on the summit of
Ô-mei Shan, distant more than three hundred _li_ from the place where
they lived. When he reached the base of the summit, all of a sudden
three giddy peaks confronted him, so dangerous that even the monkeys
and other animals dared not attempt to scale them. But he took his
courage in his hands, climbed the steep slope, and by sheer energy
reached the summit. Having cut the bamboos, he tried to descend, but
the rocks rose like a wall in sharp points all round him, and he could
not find a foothold anywhere. Then, though laden with the bamboos, he
threw himself into the air, and was borne on the wings of the wind. He
came to earth safe and sound at the foot of the mountain, and ran with
the bamboos to his master. On account of this feat he was considered
advanced enough to be admitted to instruction in the doctrine.


The Divine Archer

The Emperor Yao, in the twelfth year of his reign (2346 B.C.), one day,
while walking in the streets of Huai-yang, met a man carrying a bow
and arrows, the bow being bound round with a piece of red stuff. This
was Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yü. He told the Emperor he was a skilful archer
and could fly in the air on the wings of the wind. Yao, to test his
skill, ordered him to shoot one of his arrows at a pine-tree on the
top of a neighbouring mountain. Ch'ih shot an arrow which transfixed
the tree, and then jumped on to a current of air to go and fetch
the arrow back. Because of this the Emperor named him Shên I, 'the
Divine Archer,' attached him to his suite, and appointed him Chief
Mechanician of all Works in Wood. He continued to live only on flowers.


Vanquishes the Wind-spirit

At this time terrible calamities began to lay waste the land. Ten
suns appeared in the sky, the heat of which burnt up all the crops;
dreadful storms uprooted trees and overturned houses; floods overspread
the country. Near the Tung-t'ing Lake a serpent, a thousand feet long,
devoured human beings, and wild boars of enormous size did great
damage in the eastern part of the kingdom. Yao ordered Shên I to go
and slay the devils and monsters who were causing all this mischief,
placing three hundred men at his service for that purpose.

Shên I took up his post on Mount Ch'ing Ch'iu to study the cause of the
devastating storms, and found that these tempests were released by Fei
Lien, the Spirit of the Wind, who blew them out of a sack. As we shall
see when considering the thunder myths, the ensuing conflict ended
in Fei Lien suing for mercy and swearing friendship to his victor,
whereupon the storms ceased.


Dispels the Nine False Suns

After this first victory Shên I led his troops to the banks of the
Hsi Ho, West River, at Lin Shan. Here he discovered that on three
neighbouring peaks nine extraordinary birds were blowing out fire and
thus forming nine new suns in the sky. Shên I shot nine arrows in
succession, pierced the birds, and immediately the nine false suns
resolved themselves into red clouds and melted away. Shên I and his
soldiers found the nine arrows stuck in nine red stones at the top
of the mountain.


Marries the Sister of the Water-spirit

Shên I then led his soldiers to Kao-liang, where the river had risen
and formed an immense torrent. He shot an arrow into the water,
which thereupon withdrew to its source. In the flood he saw a man
clothed in white, riding a white horse and accompanied by a dozen
attendants. He quickly discharged an arrow, striking him in the left
eye, and the horseman at once took to flight. He was accompanied
by a young woman named Hêng O [22], the younger sister of Ho Po,
the Spirit of the Waters. Shên I shot an arrow into her hair. She
turned and thanked him for sparing her life, adding: "I will agree
to be your wife." After these events had been duly reported to the
Emperor Yao, the wedding took place.


Slays Various Dangerous Creatures

Three months later Yao ordered Shên I to go and kill the great
Tung-t'ing serpent. An arrow in the left eye laid him out stark and
dead. The wild boars also were all caught in traps and slain. As a
reward for these achievements Yao canonized Shên I with the title of
Marquis Pacifier of the Country.


Builds a Palace for Chin Mu

About this time T'ai-wu Fu-jên, the third daughter of Hsi Wang Mu,
had entered a nunnery on Nan-min Shan, to the north of Lo-fou Shan,
where her mother's palace was situated. She mounted a dragon to
visit her mother, and all along the course left a streak of light in
her wake. One day the Emperor Yao, from the top of Ch'ing-yün Shan,
saw this track of light, and asked Shên I the cause of this unusual
phenomenon. The latter mounted the current of luminous air, and
letting it carry him whither it listed, found himself on Lo-fou Shan,
in front of the door of the mountain, which was guarded by a great
spiritual monster. On seeing Shên I this creature called together
a large number of phoenixes and other birds of gigantic size and
set them at Shên I. One arrow, however, settled the matter. They
all fled, the door opened, and a lady followed by ten attendants
presented herself. She was no other than Chin Mu herself. Shên I,
having saluted her and explained the object of his visit, was admitted
to the goddess's palace, and royally entertained.

"I have heard," said Shên I to her, "that you possess the pills of
immortality; I beg you to give me one or two." "You are a well-known
architect," replied Chin Mu; "please build me a palace near this
mountain." Together they went to inspect a celebrated site known as
Pai-yü-kuei Shan, 'White Jade-tortoise Mountain,' and fixed upon it
as the location of the new abode of the goddess. Shên I had all the
spirits of the mountain to work for him. The walls were built of jade,
sweet-smelling woods were used for the framework and wainscoting,
the roof was of glass, the steps of agate. In a fortnight's time
sixteen palace buildings stretched magnificently along the side of
the mountain. Chin Mu gave to the architect a wonderful pill which
would bestow upon him immortality as well as the faculty of being
able at will to fly through the air. "But," she said, "it must not
be eaten now: you must first go through a twelve months' preparatory
course of exercise and diet, without which the pill will not have all
the desired results." Shên I thanked the goddess, took leave of her,
and, returning to the Emperor, related to him all that had happened.


Kills Chisel-tooth

On reaching home, the archer hid his precious pill under a rafter,
lest anyone should steal it, and then began the preparatory course
in immortality.

At this time there appeared in the south a strange man named Tso Ch'ih,
'Chisel-tooth.' He had round eyes and a long projecting tooth. He
was a well-known criminal. Yao ordered Shên I and his small band
of brave followers to deal with this new enemy. This extraordinary
man lived in a cave, and when Shên I and his men arrived he emerged
brandishing a padlock. Shên I broke his long tooth by shooting an
arrow at it, and Tso Ch'ih fled, but was struck in the back and laid
low by another arrow from Shên I. The victor took the broken tooth
with him as a trophy.


Hêng Ô flies to the Moon

Hêng Ô, during her husband's absence, saw a white light which seemed
to issue from a beam in the roof, while a most delicious odour filled
every room. By the aid of a ladder she reached up to the spot whence
the light came, found the pill of immortality, and ate it. She suddenly
felt that she was freed from the operation of the laws of gravity
and as if she had wings, and was just essaying her first flight when
Shên I returned. He went to look for his pill, and, not finding it,
asked Hêng Ô what had happened.

The young wife, seized with fear, opened the window and flew out. Shên
I took his bow and pursued her. The moon was full, the night clear,
and he saw his wife flying rapidly in front of him, only about the
size of a toad. Just when he was redoubling his pace to catch her up
a blast of wind struck him to the ground like a dead leaf.

Hêng Ô continued her flight until she reached a luminous sphere,
shining like glass, of enormous size, and very cold. The only
vegetation consisted of cinnamon-trees. No living being was to be
seen. All of a sudden she began to cough, and vomited the covering
of the pill of immortality, which was changed into a rabbit as white
as the purest jade. This was the ancestor of the spirituality of the
_yin_, or female, principle. Hêng Ô noticed a bitter taste in her
mouth, drank some dew, and, feeling hungry, ate some cinnamon. She
took up her abode in this sphere.

As to Shên I, he was carried by the hurricane up into a high
mountain. Finding himself before the door of a palace, he was invited
to enter, and found that it was the palace of Tung-hua Ti-chün,
otherwise Tung Wang Kung, the husband of Hsi Wang Mu.


The Sun-palace and the Bird of Dawn

The God of the Immortals said to Shên I: "You must not be annoyed
with Hêng Ô. Everybody's fate is settled beforehand. Your labours
are nearing an end, and you will become an Immortal. It was I who
let loose the whirlwind that brought you here. Hêng O, through having
borrowed the forces which by right belong to you, is now an Immortal
in the Palace of the Moon. As for you, you deserve much for having
so bravely fought the nine false suns. As a reward you shall have
the Palace of the Sun. Thus the _yin_ and the _yang_ will be united
in marriage." This said, Tung-hua Ti-chün ordered his servants to
bring a red Chinese sarsaparilla cake, with a lunar talisman.

"Eat this cake," he said; "it will protect you from the heat of the
solar hearth. And by wearing this talisman you will be able at will
to visit the lunar palace of Hêng O; but the converse does not hold
good, for your wife will not have access to the solar palace." This is
why the light of the moon has its birth in the sun, and decreases in
proportion to its distance from the sun, the moon being light or dark
according as the sun comes and goes. Shên I ate the sarsaparilla cake,
attached the talisman to his body, thanked the god, and prepared to
leave. Tung Wang Kung said to him: "The sun rises and sets at fixed
times; you do not yet know the laws of day and night; it is absolutely
necessary for you to take with you the bird with the golden plumage,
which will sing to advise you of the exact times of the rising,
culmination, and setting of the sun." "Where is this bird to be
found?" asked Shên I. "It is the one you hear calling _Ia! Ia!_
It is the ancestor of the spirituality of the _yang_, or male,
principle. Through having eaten the active principle of the sun,
it has assumed the form of a three-footed bird, which perches on the
_fu-sang_ tree [a tree said to grow at the place where the sun rises]
in the middle of the Eastern Sea. This tree is several thousands of
feet in height and of gigantic girth. The bird keeps near the source
of the dawn, and when it sees the sun taking his morning bath gives
vent to a cry that shakes the heavens and wakes up all humanity. That
is why I ordered Ling Chên-tzu to put it in a cage on T'ao-hua Shan,
Peach-blossom Hill; since then its cries have been less harsh. Go
and fetch it and take it to the Palace of the Sun. Then you will
understand all the laws of the daily movements." He then wrote a
charm which Shên I was to present to Ling Chên-tzu to make him open
the cage and hand the golden bird over to him.

The charm worked, and Ling Chên-tzu opened the cage. The bird of
golden plumage had a sonorous voice and majestic bearing. "This
bird," he said, "lays eggs which hatch out nestlings with red combs,
who answer him every morning when he starts crowing. He is usually
called the cock of heaven, and the cocks down here which crow morning
and evening are descendants of the celestial cock."


Shên I visits the Moon

Shên I, riding on the celestial bird, traversed the air and reached
the disk of the sun just at mid-day. He found himself carried into
the centre of an immense horizon, as large as the earth, and did not
perceive the rotatory movement of the sun. He then enjoyed complete
happiness without care or trouble. The thought of the happy hours
passed with his wife Hêng O, however, came back to memory, and, borne
on a ray of sunlight, he flew to the moon. He saw the cinnamon-trees
and the frozen-looking horizon. Going to a secluded spot, he found
Hêng O there all alone. On seeing him she was about to run away,
but Shên I took her hand and reassured her. "I am now living in the
solar palace," he said; "do not let the past annoy you." Shên I cut
down some cinnamon-trees, used them for pillars, shaped some precious
stones, and so built a palace, which he named Kuang-han Kung, 'Palace
of Great Cold.' From that time forth, on the fifteenth day of every
moon, he went to visit her in her palace. That is the conjunction of
the _yang_ and _yin_, male and female principles, which causes the
great brilliancy of the moon at that epoch.

Shên I, on returning to his solar kingdom, built a wonderful palace,
which he called the Palace of the Lonely Park.

From that time the sun and moon each had their ruling sovereign. This
_régime_ dates from the forty-ninth year (2309 B.C.) of Yao's reign.

When the old Emperor was informed that Shên I and his wife had both
gone up to Heaven he was much grieved to lose the man who had rendered
him such valuable service, and bestowed upon him the posthumous title
of Tsung Pu, 'Governor of Countries.' In the representations of this
god and goddess the former is shown holding the sun, the latter the
moon. The Chinese add the sequel that Hêng O became changed into a
toad, whose outline is traceable on the moon's surface.


Star-worship

The star-deities are adored by parents on behalf of their children;
they control courtship and marriage, bring prosperity or adversity in
business, send pestilence and war, regulate rainfall and drought, and
command angels and demons; so every event in life is determined by the
'star-ruler' who at that time from the shining firmament manages the
destinies of men and nations. The worship is performed in the native
homes either by astrologers engaged for that purpose or by Taoist
priests. In times of sickness, ten paper star-gods are arranged,
five good on one side and five bad on the other; a feast is placed
before them, and it is supposed that when the bad have eaten enough
they will take their flight to the south-west; the propitiation of
the good star-gods is in the hope that they will expel the evil stars,
and happiness thus be obtained.

The practical effect of this worship is seen in the following
examples taken from the Chinese list of one hundred and twenty-nine
lucky and unlucky stars, which, with the sixty cycle-stars and the
twenty-eight constellations, besides a vast multitude of others, make
up the celestial galaxy worshipped by China's millions: the Orphan
Star enables a woman to become a man; the Star of Pleasure decides
on betrothals, binding the feet of those destined to be lovers with
silver cords; the Bonepiercing Star produces rheumatism; the Morning
Star, if not worshipped, kills the father or mother during the year;
the Balustrade Star promotes lawsuits; the Three-corpse Star controls
suicide, the Peach-blossom Star lunacy; and so on.


The Herdsman and the Weaver-girl

In the myths and legends which have clustered about the observations of
the stars by the Chinese there are subjects for pictorial illustration
without number. One of these stories is the fable of Aquila and Vega,
known in Chinese mythology as the Herdsman and the Weaver-girl. The
latter, the daughter of the Sun-god, was so constantly busied with her
loom that her father became worried at her close habits and thought
that by marrying her to a neighbour, who herded cattle on the banks
of the Silver Stream of Heaven (the Milky Way), she might awake to
a brighter manner of living.

No sooner did the maiden become wife than her habits and character
utterly changed for the worse. She became not only very merry and
lively, but quite forsook loom and needle, giving up her nights
and days to play and idleness; no silly lover could have been more
foolish than she. The Sun-king, in great wrath at all this, concluded
that the husband was the cause of it, and determined to separate the
couple. So he ordered him to remove to the other side of the river of
stars, and told him that hereafter they should meet only once a year,
on the seventh night of the seventh month. To make a bridge over the
flood of stars, the Sun-king called myriads of magpies, who thereupon
flew together, and, making a bridge, supported the poor lover on
their wings and backs as if on a roadway of solid land. So, bidding
his weeping wife farewell, the lover-husband sorrowfully crossed the
River of Heaven, and all the magpies instantly flew away. But the two
were separated, the one to lead his ox, the other to ply her shuttle
during the long hours of the day with diligent toil, and the Sun-king
again rejoiced in his daughter's industry.

At last the time for their reunion drew near, and only one fear
possessed the loving wife. What if it should rain? For the River
of Heaven is always full to the brim, and one extra drop causes a
flood which sweeps away even the bird-bridge. But not a drop fell;
all the heavens were clear. The magpies flew joyfully in myriads,
making a way for the tiny feet of the little lady. Trembling with joy,
and with heart fluttering more than the bridge of wings, she crossed
the River of Heaven and was in the arms of her husband. This she did
every year. The husband stayed on his side of the river, and the
wife came to him on the magpie bridge, save on the sad occasions
when it rained. So every year the people hope for clear weather,
and the happy festival is celebrated alike by old and young.

These two constellations are worshipped principally by women, that
they may gain cunning in the arts of needlework and making of fancy
flowers. Water-melons, fruits, vegetables, cakes, etc., are placed
with incense in the reception-room, and before these offerings are
performed the kneeling and the knocking of the head on the ground in
the usual way.


The Twenty-eight Constellations

Sacrifices were offered to these spirits by the Emperor on the marble
altar of the Temple of Heaven, and by the high officials throughout
the provinces. Of the twenty-eight the following are regarded as
propitious--namely, the Horned, Room, Tail, Sieve, Bushel, House,
Wall, Mound, Stomach, End, Bristling, Well, Drawn-bow, and Revolving
Constellations; the Neck, Bottom, Heart, Cow, Female, Empty, Danger,
Astride, Cock, Mixed, Demon, Willow, Star, Wing, are unpropitious.

The twenty-eight constellations seem to have become the abodes of gods
as a result of the defeat of a Taoist Patriarch T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu,
who had espoused the cause of the tyrant Chou, when he and all his
followers were slaughtered by the heavenly hosts in the terrible
catastrophe known as the Battle of the Ten Thousand Immortals. Chiang
Tzu-ya as a reward conferred on them the appanage of the twenty-eight
constellations. The five planets, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and
Saturn, are also the abodes of stellar divinities, called the White,
Green, Black, Red, and Yellow Rulers respectively. Stars good and
bad are all likewise inhabited by gods or demons.


A Victim of Ta Chi

Concerning Tzu-wei Hsing, the constellation Tzu-wei (north circumpolar
stars), of which the stellar deity is Po I-k'ao, the following legend
is related in the _Fêng shên yen i_.

Po I-k'ao was the eldest son of Wên Wang, and governed the kingdom
during the seven years that the old King Was detained as a prisoner of
the tyrant Chou. He did everything possible to procure his father's
release. Knowing the tastes of the cruel King, he sent him for his
harem ten of the prettiest women who could be found, accompanied by
seven chariots made of perfumed wood, and a white-faced monkey of
marvellous intelligence. Besides these he included in his presents
a magic carpet, on which it was necessary only to sit in order to
recover immediately from the effects of drunkenness.

Unfortunately for Po I-k'ao, Chou's favourite concubine, Ta
Chi, conceived a passion for him and had recourse to all sorts
of ruses to catch him in her net; but his conduct was throughout
irreproachable. Vexed by his indifference, she tried slander in order
to bring about his ruin. But her calumnies did not at first have
the result she expected. Chou, after inquiry, was convinced of the
innocence of Po. But an accident spoiled everything. In the middle
of an amusing _séance_ the monkey which had been given to the King
by Po perceived some sweets in the hand of Ta Chi, and, jumping on
to her body, snatched them from Her. The King and his concubine were
furious, Chou had the monkey killed forthwith, and Ta Chi accused Po
I-k'ao of having brought the animal into the palace with the object
of making an attempt on the lives of the King and herself. But the
Prince explained that the monkey, being only an animal, could not
grasp even the first idea of entering into a conspiracy.

Shortly after this Po committed an unpardonable fault which changed
the goodwill of the King into mortal enmity. He allowed himself to
go so far as to suggest to the King that he should break off his
relations with this infamous woman, the source of all the woes which
were desolating the kingdom, and when Ta Chi on this account grossly
insulted him he struck her with his lute.

For this offence Ta Chi caused him to be crucified in the palace. Large
nails were driven through his hands and feet, and his flesh was cut
off in pieces. Not content with ruining Po I-k'ao, this wretched
woman wished also to ruin Wen Wang. She therefore advised the King to
have the flesh of the murdered man made up into rissoles and sent as
a present to his father. If he refused to eat the flesh of his own
son he was to be accused of contempt for the King, and there would
thus be a pretext for having him executed. Wen Wang, being versed in
divination and the science of the _pa kua_, Eight Trigrams, knew that
these rissoles contained the flesh of his son, and to avoid the snare
spread for him he ate three of the rissoles in the presence of the
royal envoys. On their return the latter reported this to the King,
who found himself helpless on learning of Wen Wang's conduct.

Po I-k'ao was canonized by Chiang Tzu-ya, and appointed ruler of the
constellation Tzu-wei of the North Polar heavens.


Myths of Time

T'ai Sui is the celestial spirit who presides over the year. He
is the President of the Ministry of Time. This god is much to
be feared. Whoever offends against him is sure to be destroyed. He
strikes when least expected to. T'ai Sui is also the Ministry itself,
whose members, numbering a hundred and twenty, are set over time,
years, months, and days. The conception is held by some writers to
be of Chaldeo-Assyrian origin.

The god T'ai Sui is not mentioned in the T'ang and Sung rituals, but in
the Yüan dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368) sacrifices were offered to him in the
College of the Grand Historiographer whenever any work of importance
was about to be undertaken. Under this dynasty the sacrifices were
offered to T'ai Sui and to the ruling gods of the months and of the
days. But these sacrifices were not offered at regular times: it
was only at the beginning of the Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty (1644-1912)
that it was decided to offer the sacrifices at fixed periods.


The Planet Jupiter

T'ai Sui corresponds to the planet Jupiter. He travels across the
sky, passing through the twelve sidereal mansions. He is a stellar
god. Therefore an altar is raised to him and sacrifices are offered
on it under the open sky. This practice dates from the beginning of
the Ming dynasty, when the Emperor T'ai Tsu ordered sacrifices to
this god to be made throughout the Empire. According to some authors,
he corresponds to the god of the twelve sidereal mansions. He is also
variously represented as the moon, which turns to the left in the sky,
and the sun, which turns to the right. The diviners gave to T'ai Sui
the title of Grand Marshal, following the example of the usurper Wang
Mang (A.D. 9-23) of the Western Han dynasty, who gave that title to
the year-star.


Legend of T'ai Sui

The following is the legend of T'ai Sui.

T'ai Sui was the son of the Emperor Chou, the last of the Yin
dynasty. His mother was Queen Chiang. When he was born he looked
like a lump of formless flesh. The infamous Ta Chi, the favourite
concubine of this wicked Emperor, at once informed him that a monster
had been born in the palace, and the over-credulous sovereign ordered
that it should immediately be cast outside the city. Shên Chên-jên,
who was passing, saw the small abandoned one, and said: "This is an
Immortal who has just been born." With his knife he cut open the caul
which enveloped it, and the child was exposed.

His protector carried him to the cave Shui Lien, where he led the
life of a hermit, and entrusted the infant to Ho Hsien-ku, who acted
as his nurse and brought him up.

The child's hermit-name was Yin Ting-nu, his ordinary name Yin
No-cha, but during his boyhood he was known as Yin Chiao, _i.e._
'Yin the Deserted of the Suburb,' When he had reached an age when he
was sufficiently intelligent, his nurse informed him that he was not
her son, but really the son of the Emperor Chou, who, deceived by the
calumnies of his favourite Ta Chi, had taken him for an evil monster
and had him cast out of the palace. His mother had been thrown down
from an upper storey and killed. Yin Chiao went to his rescuer and
begged him to allow him to avenge his mother's death. The Goddess
T'ien Fei, the Heavenly Concubine, picked out two magic weapons from
the armoury in the cave, a battle-axe and club, both of gold, and
gave them to Yin Chiao. When the Shang army was defeated at Mu Yeh,
Yin Chiao broke into a tower where Ta Chi was, seized her, and brought
her before the victor, King Wu, who gave him permission to split her
head open with his battle-axe. But Ta Chi was a spiritual hen-pheasant
(some say a spiritual vixen). She transformed herself into smoke and
disappeared. To reward Yin Chiao for his filial piety and bravery
in fighting the demons, Yü Ti canonized him with the title T'ai Sui
Marshal Yin.

According to another version of the legend, Yin Chiao fought on
the side of the Yin against Wu Wang, and after many adventures was
caught by Jan Têng between two mountains, which he pressed together,
leaving only Yin Chiao's head exposed above the summits. The general
Wu Chi promptly cut it off with a spade. Chiang Tz[u)]-ya subsequently
canonized Yin Chiao.


Worship of T'ai Sui

The worship of T'ai Sui seems to have first taken place in the reign
of Shên Tsung (A.D. 1068-86) of the Sung dynasty, and was continued
during the remainder of the Monarchical Period. The object of the
worship is to avert calamities, T'ai Sui being a dangerous spirit
who can do injury to palaces and cottages, to people in their houses
as well as to travellers on the roads. But he has this peculiarity,
that he injures persons and things not in the district in which he
himself is, but in those districts which adjoin it. Thus, if some
constructive work is undertaken in a region where T'ai Sui happens
to be, the inhabitants of the neighbouring districts take precautions
against his evil influence. This they generally do by hanging out the
appropriate talisman. In order to ascertain in what region T'ai Sui
is at any particular time, an elaborate diagram is consulted. This
consists of a representation of the twelve terrestrial branches
or stems, _ti chih_> and the ten celestial trunks, _t'ien kan,_
indicating the cardinal points and the intermediate points, north-east,
north-west, south-east, and south-west. The four cardinal points are
further verified with the aid of the Five Elements, the Five Colours,
and the Eight Trigrams. By using this device, it is possible to find
the geographical position of T'ai Sui during the current year, the
position of threatened districts, and the methods to be employed to
provide against danger.



CHAPTER VI

Myths of Thunder, Lightning, Wind, and Rain


The Ministry of Thunder and Storms

As already noted, affairs in the Otherworld are managed by official
Bureaux or Ministries very similar to those on earth. The _Fêng shên
yen i_ mentions several of these, and gives full details of their
constitution. The first is the Ministry of Thunder and Storms. This
is composed of a large number of officials. The principal ones are
Lei Tsu, the Ancestor of Thunder, Lei Kung, the Duke of Thunder, Tien
Mu, the Mother of Lightning, Feng Po, the Count of Wind, and Y['u]
Shih, the Master of Rain. These correspond to the Buddhist Asuras,
the "fourth class of sentient beings, the mightiest of all demons,
titanic enemies of the Dêvas," and the Vedic Maruta, storm-demons. In
the temples Lei Tsu is placed in the centre with the other four to
right and left. There are also sometimes represented other gods of
rain, or attendants. These are Hsing T'ien Chün and T'ao T'ien Chün,
both officers of Wen Chung, or Lei Tsu, Ma Yüan-shuai, Generalissimo
Ma, whose exploits are referred to later, and others.


The President of the Ministry of Thunder

This divinity has three eyes, one in the middle of his forehead, from
which, when open, a ray of white light proceeds to a distance of more
than two feet. Mounted on a black unicorn, he traverses millions of
miles in the twinkling of an eye.

His origin is ascribed to a man named Wên Chung, generally known
as Wên Chung T'ai-shih, 'the Great Teacher Wên Chung,' He was
a minister of the tyrant king Chou (1154-1122 B.C.), and fought
against the armies of the Chou dynasty. Being defeated, he fled
to the mountains of Yen, Yen Shan, where he met Ch'ih Ching-tzu,
one of the alleged discoverers of fire, and joined battle with him;
the latter, however, flashed his _yin-yang_ mirror at the unicorn,
and put it out of action. Lei Chên-tzu, one of Wu Wang's marshals,
then struck the animal with his staff, and severed it in twain.

Wên Chung escaped in the direction of the mountains of Chüeh-lung Ling,
where another marshal, Yün Chung-tzu, barred his way. Yün's hands had
the power of producing lightning, and eight columns of mysterious fire
suddenly came out of the earth, completely enveloping Wên Chung. They
were thirty feet high and ten feet in circumference. Ninety fiery
dragons came out of each and flew away up into the air. The sky was
like a furnace, and the earth shook with the awful claps of thunder. In
this fiery prison Wên Chung died.

When the new dynasty finally proved victorious, Chiang Tzu-ya, by
order of Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun, conferred on Wên Chung the supreme
direction of the Ministry of Thunder, appointing him celestial prince
and plenipotentiary defender of the laws governing the distribution of
clouds and rain. His full title was Celestial and Highly-honoured Head
of the Nine Orbits of the Heavens, Voice of the Thunder, and Regulator
of the Universe. His birthday is celebrated on the twenty-fourth day
of the sixth moon.


The Duke of Thunder

The Spirit of Thunder, for whom Lei Tsu is often mistaken, is
represented as an ugly, black, bat-winged demon, with clawed feet,
monkey's head, and eagle's beak, who holds in one hand a steel
chisel, and in the other a spiritual hammer, with which he beats
numerous drums strung about him, thus producing the terrific noise
of thunder. According to Chinese reasoning it is the sound of these
drums, and not the lightning, which causes death.

A. Gruenwedel, in his _Guide to the Lamaist Collection of Prince
Uchtomsky,_ p. 161, states that the Chino-Japanese God of Thunder,
Lei Kung, has the shape of the Indian divine bird Garuda. Are we to
suppose, then, that the Chinese Lei Kung is of Indian origin? In modern
pictures the God of Thunder is depicted with a cock's head and claws,
carrying in one hand the hammer, in the other the chisel. We learn,
however, from Wang Ch'ung's _Lun Hêng_ that in the first century B.C.,
when Buddhism was not yet introduced into China, the 'Thunderer' was
represented as a strong man, not as a bird, with one hand dragging
a cluster of drums, and with the other brandishing a hammer. Thus
Lei Kung existed already in China when the latter received her first
knowledge of India. Yet his modern image may well owe its wings to the
Indian rain-god Vajrapani, who in one form appears with Garuda wings.

Lei Kung P'u-sa, the avatar of Lei Kung (whose existence as the Spirit
of Thunder is denied by at least one Chinese writer), has made various
appearances on the earth. One of these is described below.


Lei Kung in the Tree

A certain Yeh Ch'ien-chao of Hsin Chou, when a youth, used to climb
the mountain Chien-ch'ang Shan for the purpose of cutting firewood and
collecting medicinal herbs. One day when he had taken refuge under
a tree during a rain-storm there was a loud clap of thunder, and he
saw a winged being, with a blue face, large mouth, and bird's claws,
caught in a cleft of the tree. This being addressed Yeh, saying:
"I am Lei Kung. In splitting this tree I got caught in it; if you
will free me I will reward you handsomely." The woodcutter opened the
cleft wider by driving in some stones as wedges, and liberated the
prisoner. "Return to this spot to-morrow," said the latter, "and I
will reward you." The next day the woodcutter kept the appointment,
and received from Lei Kung a book. "If you consult this work," he
explained, "you will be able at will to bring thunder or rain, cure
sickness, or assuage sorrow. We are five brothers, of whom I am the
youngest. When you want to bring rain call one or other of my brothers;
but call me only in case of pressing necessity, because I have a bad
character; but I will come if it is really necessary." Having said
these words, he disappeared.

Yeh Ch'ien-chao, by means of the prescriptions contained in the
mysterious book, could cure illnesses as easily as the sun dissipates
the morning mist. One day, when he was intoxicated and had gone to
bed in the temple of Chi-chou Ssu, the magistrate wished to arrest and
punish him. But when he reached the steps of the _yamên_, Ch'ien-chao
called Lei Kung to his aid. A terrible clap of thunder immediately
resounded throughout the district. The magistrate, nearly dead with
fright, at once dismissed the case without punishing the culprit. The
four brothers never failed to come to his aid.

By the use of his power Ch'ien-chao saved many regions from famine
by bringing timely rain.



The Mysterious Bottle

Another legend relates that an old woman living in Kiangsi had her arm
broken through being struck by lightning, when a voice from above was
heard saying: "I have made a mistake." A bottle fell out of space, and
the voice again said: "Apply the contents and you will be healed at
once." This being done, the old woman's arm was promptly mended. The
villagers, regarding the contents of the bottle as divine medicine,
wished to take it away and hide it for future use, but several of
them together could not lift it from the ground. Suddenly, however,
it rose up and disappeared into space. Other persons in Kiangsi were
also struck, and the same voice was heard to say: "Apply some grubs
to the throat and they will recover." After this had been done the
victims returned to consciousness none the worse for their experience.

The worship of Lei Kung seems to have been carried on regularly from
about the time of the Christian era.


Lei Chên-tzu

Another Son of Thunder is Lei Chên-tzu, mentioned above, whose name
when a child was Wên Yü, who was hatched from an egg after a clap
of thunder and found by the soldiers of Wên Wang in some brushwood
near an old tomb. The infant's chief characteristic was its brilliant
eyes. Wên Wang, who already had ninety-nine children, adopted it as
his hundredth, but gave it to a hermit named Yün Chung-tzu to rear
as his disciple. The hermit showed him the way to rescue his adopted
father from the tyrant who held him prisoner. In seeking for some
powerful weapon the child found on the hillside two apricots, and
ate them both. He then noticed that wings had grown on his shoulders,
and was too much ashamed to return home.

But the hermit, who knew intuitively what had taken place, sent a
servant to seek him. When they met the servant said: "Do you know that
your face is completely altered?" The mysterious fruit had not only
caused Lei Chên-tzu to grow wings, known as Wings of the Wind and
Thunder, but his face had become green, his nose long and pointed,
and two tusks protruded horizontally from each side of his mouth,
while his eyes shone like mirrors.

Lei Chên-tzu now went and rescued Wên Wang, dispersing his enemies
by means of his mystical power and bringing the old man back on his
shoulders. Having placed him in safety he returned to the hermit.


The Mother of Lightning

This divinity is represented as a female figure, gorgeously apparelled
in blue, green, red, and white, holding in either hand a mirror from
which proceed two broad streams or flashes of light. Lightning, say
the Chinese, is caused by the rubbing together of the _yin_ and the
_yang_, just as sparks of fire may be produced by the friction of
two substances.


The Origin of the Spirit of Lightning

Tung Wang Kung, the King of the Immortals, was playing at pitch-pot
[23] with Yü Nü. He lost; whereupon Heaven smiled, and from its
half-open mouth a ray of light came out. This was lightning; it is
regarded as feminine because it is supposed to come from the earth,
which is of the _yin_, or female, principle.


The God of the Wind

Fêng Po, the God of the Wind, is represented as an old man with a
white beard, yellow cloak, and blue and red cap. He holds a large
sack, and directs the wind which comes from its mouth in any direction
he pleases.

There are various ideas regarding the nature of this deity. He is
regarded as a stellar divinity under the control of the star Ch'i,
[24] because the wind blows at the time when the moon leaves that
celestial mansion. He is also said to be a dragon called Fei Lien, at
first one of the supporters of the rebel Ch'ih Yu, who was defeated
by Huang Ti. Having been transformed into a spiritual monster, he
stirred up tremendous winds in the southern regions. The Emperor
Yao sent Shên I with three hundred soldiers to quiet the storms and
appease Ch'ih Yu's relatives, who were wreaking their vengeance on the
people. Shên I ordered the people to spread a long cloth in front of
their houses, fixing it with stones. The wind, blowing against this,
had to change its direction. Shên I then flew on the wind to the top
of a high mountain, whence he saw a monster at the base. It had the
shape of a huge yellow and white sack, and kept inhaling and exhaling
in great gusts. Shên I, concluding that this was the cause of all
these storms, shot an arrow and hit the monster, whereupon it took
refuge in a deep cave. Here it turned on Shên I and, drawing a sword,
dared him to attack the Mother of the Winds. Shên I, however, bravely
faced the monster and discharged another arrow, this time hitting it
in the knee. The monster immediately threw down its sword and begged
that its life might be spared.

Fei Lien is elsewhere described as a dragon who was originally one of
the wicked ministers of the tyrant Chou, and could walk with unheard-of
swiftness. Both he and his son Ô Lai, who was so strong that he could
tear a tiger or rhinoceros to pieces with his hands, were killed when
in the service of Chou Wang. Fei Lien is also said to have the body
of a stag, about the size of a leopard, with a bird's head, horns,
and a serpent's tail, and to be able to make the wind blow whenever
he wishes.


The Master of Rain

Yü Shih, the Master of Rain, clad in yellow scale-armour, with a blue
hat and yellow busby, stands on a cloud and from a watering-can pours
rain upon the earth. Like many other gods, however, he is represented
in various forms. Sometimes he holds a plate, on which is a small
dragon, in his left hand, while with his right he pours down the
rain. He is obviously the Parjanya of Vedism.

According to a native account, the God of Rain is one Ch'ih Sung-tzu,
who appeared during a terrible drought in the reign of Shên Nung
(2838-2698 B.C.), and owing to his reputed magical power was requested
by the latter to bring rain from the sky. "Nothing is easier," he
replied; "pour a bottleful of water into an earthen bowl and give it
to me." This being done, he plucked from a neighbouring mountain a
branch of a tree, soaked it in the water, and with it sprinkled the
earth. Immediately clouds gathered and rain fell in torrents, filling
the rivers to overflowing. Ch'ih Sung-tzu was then honoured as the God
of Rain, and his images show him holding the mystic bowl. He resides
in the K'un-lun Mountains, and has many extraordinary peculiarities,
such as the power to go through water without getting wet, to pass
through fire without being burned, and to float in space.

This Rain-god also assumes the form of a silkworm chrysalis in
another account. He is there believed to possess a concubine who has
a black face, holds a serpent in each hand, and has other serpents,
red and green, reposing on her right and left ears respectively;
also a mysterious bird, with only one leg, the _shang yang_, which
can change its height at will and drink the seas dry. The following
legend is related of this bird.


The One-legged Bird

At the time when Hsüan-ming Ta-jên instructed Fei Lien in the secrets
of magic, the latter saw a wonderful bird which drew in water with its
beak and blew it out again in the shape of rain. Fei lien tamed it,
and would take it about in his sleeve.

Later on a one-legged bird was seen in the palace of the Prince of
Ch'i walking up and down and hopping in front of the throne. Being
much puzzled, the Prince sent a messenger to Lu to inquire of Confucius
concerning this strange behaviour. "This bird is a _shang yang_" said
Confucius; "its appearance is a sign of rain. In former times the
children used to amuse themselves by hopping on one foot, knitting
their eyebrows, and saying: 'It will rain, because the _shang yang_
is disporting himself.' Since this bird has gone to Ch'i, heavy rain
will fall, and the people should be told to dig channels and repair
the dykes, for the whole country will be inundated." Not only Ch'i, but
all the adjacent kingdoms were flooded; all sustained grievous damage
except Ch'i, where the necessary precautions had been taken. This
caused Duke Ching to exclaim: "Alas! how few listen to the words of
the sages!"


Ma Yüan-shuai

Ma Yüan-shuai is a three-eyed monster condemned by Ju Lai to
reincarnation for excessive cruelty in the extermination of evil
spirits. In order to obey this command he entered the womb of Ma
Chin-mu in the form of five globes of fire. Being a precocious youth,
he could fight when only three days old, and killed the Dragon-king
of the Eastern Sea. From his instructor he received a spiritual work
dealing with wind, thunder, snakes, etc., and a triangular piece of
stone which he could at will change into anything he liked. By order of
Yü Ti he subdued the Spirits of the Wind and Fire, the Blue Dragon,
the King of the Five Dragons, and the Spirit of the Five Hundred
Fire Ducks, all without injury to himself. For these and many other
enterprises he was rewarded by Yü Ti with various magic articles
and with the title of Generalissimo of the West, and is regarded as
so successful an interceder with Yü Ti that he is prayed to for all
sorts of benefits.



CHAPTER VII

Myths of the Waters


The Dragons

The dragons are spirits of the waters. "The dragon is a kind of being
whose miraculous changes are inscrutable." In a sense the dragon
is the type of a man, self-controlled, and with powers that verge
upon the supernatural. In China the dragon, except as noted below,
is not a power for evil, but a beneficent being producing rain and
representing the fecundating principle in nature. He is the essence
of the _yang_, or male, principle. "He controls the rain, and so
holds in his power prosperity and peace." The evil dragons are those
introduced by the Buddhists, who applied the current dragon legends
to the _nagas_ inhabiting the mountains. These mountain _nagas_, or
dragons (perhaps originally dreaded mountain tribes), are harmful,
those inhabiting lakes and rivers friendly and helpful. The dragon,
the "chief of the three hundred and sixty scaly reptiles," is most
generally represented as having the head of a horse and the tail of a
snake, with wings on its sides. It has four legs. The imperial dragon
has five claws on each foot, other dragons only four. The dragon is
also said to have nine 'resemblances': "its horns resemble those of
a deer, its head that of a camel, its eyes those of a devil, its neck
that of a snake, its abdomen that of a large cockle, its scales those
of a carp, its claws those of an eagle, the soles of its feet those of
a tiger, its ears those of an ox;" but some have no ears, the organ of
hearing being said to be in the horns, or the creature "hears through
its horns." These various properties are supposed to indicate the
"fossil remnants of primitive worship of many animals." The small
dragon is like the silk caterpillar. The large dragon fills the Heaven
and the earth. Before the dragon, sometimes suspended from his neck,
is a pearl. This represents the sun. There are azure, scaly, horned,
hornless, winged, etc., dragons, which apparently evolve one out
of the other: "a horned dragon," for example, "in a thousand years
changes to a flying dragon."

The dragon is also represented as the father of the great emperors
of ancient times. His bones, teeth, and saliva are employed as a
medicine. He has the power of transformation and of rendering himself
visible or invisible at pleasure. In the spring he ascends to the
skies, and in the autumn buries himself in the watery depths. Some are
wingless, and rise into the air by their own inherent power. There is
the celestial dragon, who guards the mansions of the gods and supports
them so that they do not fall; the divine dragon, who causes the winds
to blow and produces rain for the benefit of mankind; the earth-dragon,
who marks out the courses of rivers and streams; and the dragon of the
hidden treasures, who watches over the wealth concealed from mortals.

The Buddhists count their dragons in number equal to the fish of the
great deep, which defies arithmetical computation, and can be expressed
only by their sacred numerals. The people have a more certain faith
in them than in most of their divinities, because they see them so
often; every cloud with a curious configuration or serpentine tail
is a dragon. "We see him," they say. The scattering of the cloud is
his disappearance. He rules the hills, is connected with _fêng-shui_
(geomancy), dwells round the graves, is associated with the Confucian
worship, is the Neptune of the sea, and appears on dry land.


The Dragon-kings

The Sea-dragon Kings live in gorgeous palaces in the depths of the
sea, where they feed on pearls and opals. There are five of these
divinities, the chief being in the centre, and the other four occupying
the north, the west, the south, and the east. Each is a league in
length, and so bulky that in shifting its posture it tosses one
mountain against another. It has five feet, one of them being in the
middle of its belly, and each foot is armed with five sharp claws. It
can reach into the heavens, and stretch itself into all quarters of
the sea. It has a glowing armour of yellow scales, a beard under its
long snout, a hairy tail, and shaggy legs. Its forehead projects over
its blazing eyes, its ears are small and thick, its mouth gaping,
its tongue long, and its teeth sharp. Fish are boiled by the blast of
its breath, and roasted by the fiery exhalations of its body. When it
rises to the surface the whole ocean surges, waterspouts foam, and
typhoons rage. When it flies, wingless, through the air, the winds
howl, torrents of rain descend, houses are unroofed, the firmament
is filled with a din, and whatever lies along its route is swept away
with a roar in the hurricane created by the speed of its passage.

The five Sea-dragon Kings are all immortal. They know each other's
thoughts, plans, and wishes without intercommunication. Like all the
other gods they go once a year to the superior Heavens, to make an
annual report to the Supreme Ruler; but they go in the third month,
at which time none of the other gods dare appear, and their stay
above is but brief. They generally remain in the depths of the ocean,
where their courts are filled with their progeny, their dependents,
and their attendants, and where the gods and genii sometimes visit
them. Their palaces, of divers coloured transparent stones, with
crystal doors, are said to have been seen in the early morning by
persons gazing into the deep waters.


The Foolish Dragon

The part of the great Buddha legend referring to the dragon is
as follows:

In years gone by, a dragon living in the great sea saw that his wife's
health was not good. He, seeing her colour fade away, said: "My dear,
what shall I get you to eat?" Mrs Dragon was silent. Just tell me and
I will get it," pleaded the affectionate husband. "You cannot do it;
why trouble?" quoth she. "Trust me, and you shall have your heart's
desire," said the dragon. "Well, I want a monkey's heart to eat." "Why,
Mrs Dragon, the monkeys live in the mountain forests! How can I get
one of their hearts?" "Well, I am going to die; I know I am."

Forthwith the dragon went on shore, and, spying a monkey on the top
of a tree, said: "Hail, shining one, are you not afraid you will
fall?" "No, I have no such fear." "Why eat of one tree? Cross the
sea, and you will find forests of fruit and flowers." "How can I
cross?" "Get on my back." The dragon with his tiny load went seaward,
and then suddenly dived down. "Where are you going?" said the monkey,
with the salt water in his eyes and mouth. "Oh! my dear sir! my wife
is very sad and ill, and has taken a fancy to your heart." "What
shall I do?" thought the monkey. He then spoke, "Illustrious friend,
why did not you tell me? I left my heart on the top of the tree;
take me back, and I will get it for Mrs Dragon." The dragon returned
to the shore. As the monkey was tardy in coming down from the tree,
the dragon said: "Hurry up, little friend, I am waiting." Then the
monkey thought within himself, "What a fool this dragon is!"

Then Buddha said to his followers: "At this time I was the monkey."


The Ministry of Waters

In the spirit-world there is a Ministry which controls all things
connected with the waters on earth, salt or fresh. Its main
divisions are the Department of Salt Waters, presided over by four
Dragon-kings--those of the East, South, West, and North--and the
Department of Sweet Waters, presided over by the Four Kings (_Ssu
Tu_) of the four great rivers--the Blue (Chiang), Yellow (Ho), Huai,
and Ch'i--and the Dragon-spirits who control the Secondary Waters, the
rivers, springs, lakes, pools, rapids. Into the names and functions of
the very large number of officials connected with these departments
it is unnecessary to enter. It will be sufficient here to refer only
to those whose names are connected with myth or legend.


An Unauthorized Portrait

One of these legends relates to the visit of Ch'in Shih Huang-ti,
the First Emperor, to the Spirit of the Sea, Yang Hou, originally
a marquis (_bou_) of the State Yang, who became a god through being
drowned in the sea.

Po Shih, a Taoist priest, told the Emperor that an enormous oyster
vomited from the sea a mysterious substance which accumulated in the
form of a tower, and was known as 'the market of the sea' (Chinese for
'mirage'). Every year, at a certain period, the breath from his mouth
was like the rays of the sun. The Emperor expressed a wish to see
it, and Po Shih said he would write a letter to the God of the Sea,
and the next day the Emperor could behold the wonderful sight.

The Emperor then remembered a dream he had had the year before in
which he saw two men fighting for the sun. The one killed the other,
and carried it off. He therefore wished to visit the country where
the sun rose. Po Shih said that all that was necessary was to throw
rocks into the sea and build a bridge across them. Thereupon he
rang his magic bell, the earth shook, and rocks began to rise up;
but as they moved too slowly he struck them with his whip, and blood
came from them which left red marks in many places. The row of rocks
extended as far as the shore of the sun-country, but to build the
bridge across them was found to be beyond the reach of human skill.

So Po Shih sent another messenger to the God of the Sea, requesting
him to raise a pillar and place a beam across it which could be used
as a bridge. The submarine spirits came and placed themselves at the
service of the Emperor, who asked for an interview with the god. To
this the latter agreed on condition that no one should make a portrait
of him, he being very ugly. Instantly a stone gangway 100,000 feet
long rose out of the sea, and the Emperor, mounting his horse, went
with his courtiers to the palace of the god. Among his followers was
one Lu Tung-shih, who tried to draw a portrait of the god by using
his foot under the surface of the water. Detecting this manoeuvre,
the god was incensed, and said to the Emperor: "You have broken your
word; did you bring Lu here to insult me? Retire at once, or evil will
befall you." The Emperor, seeing that the situation was precarious,
mounted his horse and galloped off. As soon as he reached the beach,
the stone cause-way sank, and all his suite perished in the waves. One
of the Court magicians said to the Emperor: "This god ought to be
feared as much as the God of Thunder; then he could be made to help
us. To-day a grave mistake has been made." For several days after
this incident the waves beat upon the beach with increasing fury. The
Emperor then built a temple and a pagoda to the god on Chih-fu Shan
and Wên-têng Shan respectively; by which act of propitiation he was
apparently appeased.


The Shipwrecked Servant

Once the Eight Immortals (see Chapter XI) were on their way to
Ch'ang-li Shan to celebrate the birthday anniversary of Hsien Wêng,
the God of Longevity. They had with them a servant who bore the
presents they intended to offer to the god. When they reached the
seashore the Immortals walked on the waves without any difficulty,
but Lan Ts'ai-ho remarked that the servant was unable to follow them,
and said that a means of transport must be found for him. So Ts'ao
Kuo-chiu took a plank of cypress-wood and made a raft. But when they
were in mid-ocean a typhoon arose and upset the raft, and servant
and presents sank to the bottom of the sea.

Regarding this as the hostile act of a water-devil, the Immortals said
they must demand an explanation from the Dragon-king, Ao Ch'in. Li
T'ieh-kuai took his gourd, and, directing the mouth toward the bottom
of the sea, created so brilliant a light that it illuminated the whole
palace of the Sea-king. Ao Ch'in, surprised, asked where this powerful
light originated, and deputed a courier to ascertain its cause.

To this messenger the Immortals made their complaint. "All we want,"
they added, "is that the Dragon-king shall restore to us our servant
and the presents." On this being reported to Ao Ch'in he suspected
his son of being the cause, and, having established his guilt,
severely reprimanded him. The young Prince took his sword, and,
followed by an escort, went to find those who had made the complaint
to his father. As soon as he caught sight of the Immortals he began
to inveigh against them.


A Battle and its Results

Han Hsiang Tzu, not liking this undeserved abuse, changed his flute
into a fishing-line, and as soon as the Dragon-prince was within reach
caught him on the hook, with intent to retain him as a hostage. The
Prince's escort returned in great haste and informed Ao Ch'in of
what had occurred. The latter declared that his son was in the wrong,
and proposed to restore the shipwrecked servant and the presents. The
Court officers, however, held a different opinion. "These Immortals,"
they said, "dare to hold captive your Majesty's son merely on account
of a few lost presents and a shipwrecked servant. This is a great
insult, which we ask permission to avenge." Eventually they won
over Ao Ch'in, and the armies of the deep gathered for the fray. The
Immortals called to their aid the other Taoist Immortals and Heroes,
and thus two formidable armies found themselves face to face.

Several attempts were made by other divinities to avert the conflict,
but without success. The battle was a strenuous one. Ao Ch'in received
a ball of fire full on his head, and his army was threatened with
disaster when Tz'u-hang Ta-shih appeared with his bottle of lustral
water. He sprinkled the combatants with this magic fluid, using a
willow-branch for the purpose, thus causing all their magic powers
to disappear.

Shui Kuan, the Ruler of the Watery Elements, then arrived, and
reproached Ao Ch'in; he assured him that if the matter were to
come to the knowledge of Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, he would not
only be severely punished, but would risk losing his post. Ao Ch'in
expressed penitence, restored the servant and the presents, and made
full apology to the Eight Immortals.


The Dragon in the Pond

One day Chang Tao-ling, the 'father of modern Taoism,' was on
Ho-ming Shan with his disciple Wang Ch'ang. "See," he said, "that
shaft of white light on Yang Shan yonder! There are undoubtedly
some bad spirits there. Let us go and bring them to reason." When
they reached the foot of the mountain they met twelve women who had
the appearance of evil spirits. Chang Tao-ling asked them whence
came the shaft of white light. They answered that it was the _yin_,
or female, principle of the earth. "Where is the source of the salt
water?" he asked again. "That pond in front of you," they replied,
"in which lives a very wicked dragon." Chang Tao-ling tried to force
the dragon to come out, but without success. Then he drew a phoenix
with golden wings on a charm and hurled it into the air over the
pond. Thereupon the dragon took fright and fled, the pond immediately
drying up. After that Chang Tao-ling took his sword and stuck it in
the ground, whereupon a well full of salt water appeared on the spot.


The Spirits of the Well

The twelve women each offered Chang Tao-ling a jade ring, and asked
that they might become his wives. He took the rings, and pressing
them together in his hands made of them one large single ring. "I
will throw this ring into the well," he said, "and the one of you
who recovers it shall be my wife." All the twelve women jumped into
the well to get the ring; whereupon Chang Tao-ling put a cover over
it and fastened it down, telling them that henceforth they should be
the spirits of the well and would never be allowed to come out.

Shortly after this Chang Tao-ling met a hunter. He exhorted him not
to kill living beings, but to change his occupation to that of a
salt-burner, instructing him how to draw out the salt from salt-water
wells. Thus the people of that district were advantaged both by being
able to obtain the salt and by being no longer molested by the twelve
female spirits. A temple, called Temple of the Prince of Ch'ing Ho,
was built by them, and the territory of Ling Chou was given to Chang
Tao-ling in recognition of the benefits he had conferred upon the
people.


The Dragon-king's Daughter

A graduate named Liu I, in the reign-period I Fêng (A.D. 676-679)
of the Emperor Kao Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, having failed in
his examination for his licentiate's degree, when passing through
Ching-yang Hsien, in Ch'ang-an, Shensi, on his way home, saw a
young woman tending goats by the roadside. She said to him: "I am the
youngest daughter of the Dragonking of the Tung-t'ing Lake. My parents
married me to the son of the God of the River Ching, but my husband,
misled by the slanders of the servants, repudiated me. I have heard
that you are returning to the Kingdom of Wu, which is quite close
to my native district, so I want to ask you to take this letter to
my father. To the north of the Tung-t'ing Lake you will find a large
orange-tree, called by the natives Protector of the Soil. Strike it
three times with your girdle and some one will appear."

Some months later the graduate went to the spot, found the orange-tree,
and struck it three times, whereupon a warrior arose from the lake
and, saluting him, asked what he wanted. "I wish to see your great
King," the graduate replied. The warrior struck the waters, opening
a passage for Liu I, and led him to a palace. "This," he said, "is
the palace of Ling Hsü." In a few minutes there appeared a person
dressed in violet-coloured clothes and holding in his hand a piece
of jade. "This is our King," said the warrior. "I am your Majesty's
neighbour," replied Liu I. "I spent my youth in Ch'u and studied in
Ch'in. I have just failed in my licentiate examination. On my way
home I saw your daughter tending some goats; she was all dishevelled,
and in so pitiable a condition that it hurt me to see her, She has
sent you this letter."


Golden Dragon Great Prince

On reading the letter the King wept, and all the courtiers followed
his example. "Stop wailing," said the King, "lest Ch'ien-t'ang
hear." "Who is Ch'ien-t'ang?" asked Liu I. "He is my dear brother,"
replied the King; "formerly he was one of the chief administrators of
the Ch'ien-t'ang River; now he is the chief God of Rivers." "Why are
you so afraid that he might hear what I have just told you?" "Because
he has a terrible temper. It was he who, in the reign of Yao, caused
a nine-years flood."

Before he had finished speaking, a red dragon, a thousand feet long,
with red scales, mane of fire, bloody tongue, and eyes blazing
like lightning, passed through the air with rapid flight and
disappeared. Barely a few moments had elapsed when it returned with
a young woman whom Liu I recognized as the one who had entrusted him
with the letter. The Dragon-king, overjoyed, said to him: "This is my
daughter; her husband is no more, and she offers you her hand." Liu
did not dare to accept, since it appeared that they had just killed
her husband. He took his departure, and married a woman named Chang,
who soon died. He then married another named Han, who also died. He
then went to live at Nanking, and, his solitude preying upon his
spirits, he decided to marry yet again. A middleman spoke to him of a
girl of Fang Yang, in Chihli, whose father, Hao, had been Magistrate
of Ch'ing Liu, in Anhui. This man was always absent on his travels,
no one knew whither. The girl's mother, Cheng, had married her two
years before to a man named Chang of Ch'ing Ho, in Chihli, who had
just died. Distressed at her daughter being left a widow so young,
the mother wished to find another husband for her.

Liu I agreed to marry this young woman, and at the end of a year
they had a son. She then said to her husband: "I am the daughter
of the King of the Tung-t'ing Lake. It was you who saved me from
my miserable plight on the bank of the Ching, and I swore I would
reward you. Formerly you refused to accept my hand, and my parents
decided to marry me to the son of a silk-merchant. I cut my hair,
and never ceased to hope that I might some time or other be united
to you in order that I might show you my gratitude."

In A.D. 712, in the reign-period K'ai-yüan of the Emperor Hsüan Tsung
of the T'ang dynasty, they both returned to the Tung-t'ing Lake;
but the legend says nothing further with regard to them.

Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, conferred on Liu I the title of Chin
Lung Ta Wang, 'Golden Dragon Great Prince.'


The Old Mother of the Waters

The Old Mother of the Waters, Shul-mu Niang-niang, is the legendary
spirit of Ssu-chou, in Anhui. To her is popularly ascribed the
destruction of the ancient city of Ssu-chou, which was completely
submerged by the waters of the Hung-tsê Lake in A.D. 1574.

One author states that this Goddess of the Waters is the younger
sister of the White Spiritual Elephant, a guardian of the Door of
Buddha. This elephant is the "subtle principle of metamorphosed water."

In his _Recherches sur Us Superstitions en Chine_, Père Henri Doré,
S.J., relates the legends he had heard with regard to this deity. One
of these is as follows:

Shui-mu Niang-niang inundated the town of Ssu-chou almost every year. A
report was presented to Yu Huang, Lord of the Skies, begging him to
put an end to the scourge which devastated the country and cost so
many lives. The Lord of the Skies commanded the Great Kings of the
Skies and their generals to raise troops and take the field in order
to capture this goddess and deprive her of the power of doing further
mischief. But her tricks triumphed over force, and the city continued
to be periodically devastated by inundations.

One day Shui-mu Niang-niang was seen near the city gate carrying two
buckets of water. Li Lao-chün suspected some plot, but, an open attack
being too risky, he preferred to adopt a ruse. He went and bought
a donkey, led it to the buckets of water, and let it drink their
contents. Unfortunately the animal could not drink all the water,
so that a little remained at the bottom of the buckets. Now these
magical buckets contained the sources of the five great lakes, which
held enough water to inundate the whole of China. Shui-mu Niang-niang
with her foot overturned one of the buckets, and the water that had
remained in it was enough to cause a formidable flood, which submerged
the unfortunate town, and buried it for ever under the immense sheet
of water called the Lake of Hung-tsê.

So great a crime deserved an exemplary punishment, and accordingly Yü
Huang sent reinforcements to his armies, and a pursuit of the goddess
was methodically organized.


The Magic Vermicelli

Sun Hou-tzu, the Monkey Sun, [25] the rapid courier, who in a
single skip could traverse 108,000 _li_ (36,000 miles), started in
pursuit and caught her up, but the astute goddess was clever enough
to slip through his fingers. Sun Hou-tzu, furious at this setback,
went to ask Kuan-yin P'u-sa to come to his aid. She promised to do
so. As one may imagine, the furious race she had had to escape from
her enemy had given Shui-mu Niang-niang a good appetite. Exhausted
with fatigue, and with an empty stomach, she caught sight of a woman
selling vermicelli, who had just prepared two bowls of it and was
awaiting customers. Shui-mu Niang-niang went up to her and began
to eat the strength-giving food with avidity. No sooner had she
eaten half of the vermicelli than it changed in her stomach into
iron chains, which wound round her intestines. The end of the chain
protruded from her mouth, and the contents of the bowl became another
long chain which welded itself to the end which stuck out beyond her
lips. The vermicelli-seller was no other than Kuan-yin P'u-sa herself,
who had conceived this stratagem as a means of ridding herself of
this evil-working goddess. She ordered Sun Hou-tzu to take her down
a deep well at the foot of a mountain in Hsü-i Hsien and to fasten
her securely there. It is there that Shui-mu Niang-niang remains in
her liquid prison. The end of the chain is to be seen when the water
is low.


Hsü, the Dragon-slayer

Hsü Chên-chün was a native either of Ju-ning Fu in Honan, or of
Nan-ch'ang Fu in Kiangsi. His father was Hsü Su. His personal name
was Ching-chih, and his ordinary name Sun.

At forty-one years of age, when he was Magistrate of Ching-yang,
near the modern Chih-chiang Hsien, in Hupei, during times of drought
he had only to touch a piece of tile to turn it into gold, and thus
relieve the people of their distress. He also saved many lives by
curing sickness through the use of talismans and magic formulæ.

During the period of the dynastic troubles he resigned and joined
the famous magician Kuo P'o. Together they proceeded to the minister
Wang Tun, who had risen against the Eastern Chin dynasty. Kuo P'o's
remonstrances only irritated the minister, who cut off his head.

Hsü Sun then threw his chalice on the ridgepole of the room, causing
it to be whirled into the air. As Wang Tun was watching the career of
the chalice, Hsü disappeared and escaped. When he reached Lu-chiang
K'ou, in Anhui, he boarded a boat, which two dragons towed into the
offing and then raised into the air. In an instant they had borne it
to the Lü Shan Mountains, to the south of Kiukiang, in Kiangsi. The
perplexed boatman opened the window of his boat and took a furtive
look out. Thereupon the dragons, finding themselves discovered by an
infidel, set the boat down on the top of the mountain and fled.


The Spiritual Alligator

In this country was a dragon, or spiritual alligator, which transformed
itself into a young man named Shên Lang, and married Chia Yü, daughter
of the Chief Judge of T'an Chou (Ch'ang-sha Fu, capital of Hunan). The
young people lived in rooms below the official apartments. During
spring and summer Shên Lang, as dragons are wont to do, roamed in the
rivers and lakes. One day Hsü Chên-chün met him, recognized him as a
dragon, and knew that he was the cause of the numerous floods which
were devastating Kiangsi Province. He determined to find a means of
getting rid of him.

Shên Lang, aware of the steps being taken against him, changed himself
into a yellow ox and fled. Hsü Chên-chün at once transformed himself
into a black ox and started in pursuit. The yellow ox jumped down a
well to hide, but the black ox followed suit. The yellow ox then jumped
out again, and escaped to Ch'ang-sha, where he reassumed a human form
and lived with Ms wife in the home of his father-in-law, Hsü Sun,
returning to the town, hastened to the _yamên,_ and called to Shên
Lang to come out and show himself, addressing him in a severe tone
of voice as follows: "Dragon, how dare you hide yourself there under
a borrowed form?" Shên Lang then reassumed the form of a spiritual
alligator, and Hsü Sun ordered the spiritual soldiers to kill him. He
then commanded his two sons to come out of their abode. By merely
spurting a mouthful of water on them he transformed them into young
dragons. Chia Yü was told to vacate the rooms with all speed, and
in the twinkling of an eye the whole _yamên_ sank beneath the earth,
and there remained nothing but a lake where it had been.

Hsü Chên-chün, after his victory over the dragon, assembled the members
of his family, to the number of forty-two, on Hsi Shan, outside the
city of Nan-ch'ang Fu, and all ascended to Heaven in full daylight,
taking with them even the dogs and chickens. He was then 133 years
old. This took place on the first day of the eighth moon of the second
year (A.D. 374) of the reign-period Ning-K'ang of the reign of the
Emperor Hsiao Wu Ti of the Eastern Chin dynasty.

Subsequently a temple was erected to him, and in A.D. 1111 he was
canonized as Just Prince, Admirable and Beneficent.


The Great Flood

The repairing of the heavens by Nü Kua, elsewhere alluded to, is also
attributed to the following incident.

Before the Chinese Empire was founded a noble and wonderful queen
fought with the chief of the tribes who inhabited the country round
about Ô-mei Shan. In a fierce battle the chief and his followers met
defeat; raging with anger at being beaten by a woman, he rushed up
the mountain-side; the Queen pursued him with her army, and overtook
him at the summit; finding no place to hide himself, he attempted in
desperation both to wreak vengeance upon his enemies and to end his
own life by beating his head violently against the cane of the Heavenly
Bamboo which grew there. By his mad battering he at last succeeded in
knocking down the towering trunk of the tree, and as he did so its
top tore great rents in the canopy of the sky, through which poured
great floods of water, inundating the whole earth and drowning all the
inhabitants except the victorious Queen and her soldiers. The floods
had no power to harm her or her followers, because she herself was
an all-powerful divinity and was known as the 'Mother of the Gods,'
and the 'Defender of the Gods.' From the mountain-side she gathered
together stones of a kind having five colours, and ground them into
powder; of this she made a plaster or mortar, with which she repaired
the tears in the heavens, and the floods immediately ceased.


The Marriage of the River-god

In Yeh Hsien there was a witch and some official attendants who
collected money from the people yearly for the marriage of the
River-god.

The witch would select a pretty girl of low birth, and say that she
should be the Queen of the River-god. The girl was bathed, and clothed
in a beautiful dress of gay and costly silk. She was then taken to
the bank of the river, to a monastery which was beautifully decorated
with scrolls and banners. A feast was held, and the girl was placed
on a bed which was floated out upon the tide till it disappeared
under the waters.

Many families having beautiful daughters moved to distant places,
and gradually the city became deserted. The common belief in Yeh was
that if no queen was offered to the River-god a flood would come and
drown the people.

One day Hsi-mên Pao, Magistrate of Yeh Hsien, said to his attendants:
"When the marriage of the River-god takes place I wish to say farewell
to the chosen girl."

Accordingly Hsi-mên Pao was present to witness the ceremony. About
three thousand people had come together. Standing beside the old
witch were ten of her female disciples, "Call the girl out," said
Hsi-mên Pao. After seeing her, Hsi-mên Pao said to the witch: "She
is not fair. Go you to the River-god and tell him that we will find
a fairer maid and present her to him later on." His attendants then
seized the witch and threw her into the river.

After a little while Hsi-mên Pao said: "Why does she stay so long? Send
a disciple to call her back." One of the disciples was thrown into the
river. Another and yet another followed. The magistrate then said:"
The witches are females and therefore cannot bring me a reply." So
one of the official attendants of the witch was thrown into the river.

Hsi-mên Pao stood on the bank for a long time, apparently awaiting
a reply. The spectators were alarmed. Hsi-mên Pao then bade his
attendants send the remaining disciples of the witch and the other
official attendants to recall their mistress. The wretches threw
themselves on their knees and knocked their heads on the ground,
which was stained with the blood from their foreheads, and with tears
confessed their sin.

"The River-god detains his guest too long," said Hsi-mên Pao at
length. "Let us adjourn."

Thereafter none dared to celebrate the marriage of the River-god.


Legend of the Building of Peking

When the Mongol Yüan dynasty had been destroyed, and the Emperor
Hung Wu had succeeded in firmly establishing that of the Great Ming,
Ta Ming, he made Chin-ling, the present Nanking, his capital, and held
his Court there with great splendour, envoys from every province within
the 'Four Seas' (the Chinese Empire) assembling there to witness his
greatness and to prostrate themselves before the Dragon Throne.

The Emperor had many sons and daughters by his different consorts and
concubines, each mother, in her inmost heart, fondly hoping that her
own son would be selected by his father to succeed him.

Although the Empress had a son, who was the heir-apparent, yet she felt
envious of those ladies who had likewise been blessed with children,
for fear one of the princes should supplant her son in the affection
of the Emperor and in the succession. This envy displayed itself on
every occasion; she was greatly beloved by the Emperor, and exerted
all her influence with him, as the other young princes grew up,
to get them removed from Court. Through her means most of them were
sent to the different provinces as governors; those provinces under
their government being so many principalities or kingdoms.



Chu-ti

One of the consorts of Hung Wu, the Lady Wêng, had a son named
Chu-ti. This young prince was very handsome and graceful in his
deportment; he was, moreover, of an amiable disposition. He was the
fourth son of the Emperor, and his pleasing manner and address had made
him a great favourite, not only with his father, but with every one
about the Court. The Empress noticed the evident affection the Emperor
evinced for this prince, and determined to get him removed from the
Court as soon as possible. By a judicious use of flattery and cajolery,
she ultimately persuaded the Emperor to appoint the prince governor of
the Yen country, and thenceforth he was styled Yen Wang, Prince of Yen.


The Sealed Packet

The young Prince, shortly after, taking an affectionate leave of
the Emperor, left Chin-ling to proceed to his post. Ere he departed,
however, a Taoist priest, called Liu Po-wên, who had a great affection
for the Prince, put a sealed packet into his hand, and told him to
open it when he found himself in difficulty, distress, or danger; the
perusal of the first portion that came to his hand would invariably
suggest some remedy for the evil, whatever it was. After doing so,
he was again to seal the packet, without further looking into its
contents, till some other emergency arose necessitating advice or
assistance, when he would again find it. The Prince departed on his
journey, and in the course of time, without meeting with any adventures
worth recording, arrived safely at his destination.



A Desolate Region

The place where Peking now stands was originally called Yu Chou; in the
T'ang dynasty it was called Pei-p'ing Fu; and afterward became known
as Shun-t'ien Fu--but that was after the city now called Peking was
built. The name of the country in which this place was situated was
Yen. It was a mere barren wilderness, with very few inhabitants; these
lived in huts and scattered hamlets, and there was no city to afford
protection to the people and to check the depredations of robbers.

When the Prince saw what a desolate-looking place he had been appointed
to, and thought of the long years he was probably destined to spend
there, he grew very melancholy, and nothing his attendants essayed
to do in hope of alleviating his sorrow succeeded.


The Prince opens the Sealed Packet

All at once the Prince bethought himself of the packet which the old
Taoist priest had given him; he forthwith proceeded to make search for
it--for in the bustle and excitement of travelling he had forgotten
all about it--in hope that it might suggest something to better the
prospects before him. Having found the packet, he hastily broke it
open to see what instructions it contained; taking out the first
paper which came to hand, he read the following:

"When you reach Pei-p'ing Fu you must build a city there and name
it No-cha Ch'êng, the City of No-cha. [26] But, as the work will
be costly, you must issue a proclamation inviting the wealthy to
subscribe the necessary funds for building it. At the back of this
paper is a plan of the city; you must be careful to act according to
the instructions accompanying it."

The Prince inspected the plan, carefully read the instructions, and
found even the minutest details fully explained. He was struck with
the grandeur of the design of the proposed city, and at once acted on
the instructions contained in the packet; proclamations were posted up,
and large sums were speedily subscribed, ten of the wealthiest families
who had accompanied him from Chin-ling being the largest contributors,
supporting the plan not only with their purses, by giving immense sums,
but by their influence among their less wealthy neighbours.


The City is Founded

When sufficient money had been subscribed, a propitious day was chosen
on which to commence the undertaking. Trenches where the foundations
of the walls were to be were first dug out, according to the plan
found in the packet. The foundations themselves consisted of layers
of stone quarried from the western hills; bricks of an immense size
were made and burnt in the neighbourhood; the moat was dug out, and
the earth from it used to fill in the centre of the walls, which,
when complete, were forty-eight _li_ in circumference, fifty cubits in
height, and fifty in breadth; the whole circuit of the walls having
battlements and embrasures. Above each of the nine gates of the city
immense three-storied towers were built, each tower being ninety-nine
cubits in height.

Near the front entrance of the city, facing each other, were built the
Temples of Heaven and of Earth. In rear of it the beautiful 'Coal Hill'
(better known as 'Prospect Hill') was raised; while in the square in
front of the Great Gate of the palace was buried an immense quantity
of charcoal (that and the coal being stored as a precaution in case
of siege).

The palace, containing many superb buildings, was built in a style of
exceeding splendour; in the various enclosures were beautiful gardens
and lakes; in the different courtyards, too, seventy-two wells were
dug and thirty-six golden tanks placed. The whole of the buildings
and grounds was surrounded by a lofty wall and a stone-paved moat,
in which the lotus and other flowers bloomed in great beauty and
profusion, and in the clear waters of which myriads of gold and silver
fish disported themselves.

The geomancy of the city was similar to that of Chin-ling, When
everything was completed the Prince compared it with the plan and
found that the city tallied with it in every respect. He was much
delighted, and called for the ten wealthy persons who had been
the chief contributors, and gave each of them a pair of 'couchant
dragon' silk- or satin-embroidered cuffs, and allowed them great
privileges. Up to the present time there is the common saying:
"Since then the 'dragon-cuffed' gentlefolks have flourished."


General Prosperity

All the people were loud in praise of the beauty and strength of the
newly built city. Merchants from every province hastened to Peking,
attracted by the news they heard of its magnificence and the prospect
there was of profitably disposing of their wares. In short, the people
were prosperous and happy, food was plentiful, the troops brave, the
monarch just, his ministers virtuous, and all enjoyed the blessings
of peace.


A Drought and its Cause

While everything was thus tranquil, a sudden and untoward event
occurred which spread dismay and consternation on all sides. One day
when the Prince went into the hall of audience one of his ministers
reported that "the wells are thirsty and the rivers dried up"--there
was no water, and the people were all in the greatest alarm. The
Prince at once called his counsellors together to devise some means
of remedying this disaster and causing the water to return to the
wells and springs, but no one could suggest a suitable plan.

It is necessary to explain the cause of this scarcity of water. There
was a dragon's cave outside the east gate of the city at a place
called Lei-chên K'ou, 'Thunder-clap Mouth' or 'Pass' (the name of a
village). The dragon had not been seen for myriads of years, yet it
was well known that he lived there.

In digging out the earth to build the wall the workmen had broken into
this dragon's cave, little thinking of the consequences which would
result. The dragon was exceedingly wroth and determined to shift his
abode, but the she-dragon said: "We have lived here thousands of years,
and shall we suffer the Prince of Yen to drive us forth thus? If we
_do_ go we will collect all the water, place it in our _yin-yang_
baskets [used for drawing water], and at midnight we will appear in a
dream to the Prince, requesting permission to retire. If he gives us
permission to do so, and allows us also to take our baskets of water
with us, he will fall into our trap, for we shall take the waler with
his own consent,"



The Prince's Dream

The two dragons then transformed themselves into an old man and
an old woman, went to the chamber of the Prince, who was asleep,
and appeared to him in a dream. Kneeling before him, they cried:
"O Lord of a Thousand Years, we have come before you to beg leave to
retire from this place, and to beseech you out of your great bounty
to give us permission to take these two baskets of water with us."

The Prince readily assented, little dreaming of the danger he was
incurring. The dragons were highly delighted, and hastened out of
his presence; they filled the baskets with all the water there was
in Peking, and carried them off with them.

When the Prince awoke he paid no attention to his dream till he
heard the report of the scarcity of water, when, reflecting on the
singularity of his dream, he thought there might be some hidden meaning
in it. He therefore had recourse to the packet again, and discovered
that his dream-visitors had been dragons, who had taken the waters of
Peking away with them in their magic baskets; the packet, however,
contained directions for the recovery of the water, and he at once
prepared to follow them.


The Pursuit of the Dragons

In haste the Prince donned his armour, mounted his black steed, and,
spear in hand, dashed out of the west gate of the city. He pressed on
his horse, which went swift as the wind, nor did he slacken speed till
he came up with the water-stealing dragons, who still retained the
forms in which they had appeared to him in his dream. On a cart were
the two identical baskets he had seen; in front of the cart, dragging
it, was the old woman, while behind, pushing it, was the old man.


An Unexpected Flood

When the Prince saw them he galloped up to the cart, and, without
pausing, thrust his spear into one of the baskets, making a great hole,
out of which the water rushed so rapidly that the Prince was much
frightened. He dashed off at full speed to save himself from being
swallowed up by the waters, which in a very short time had risen more
than thirty feet and had flooded the surrounding country. On galloped
the Prince, followed by the roaring water, till he reached a hill,
up which he urged his startled horse. When he gained the top he found
that it stood out of the water like an island, completely surrounded;
the water was seething and swirling round the hill in a frightful
manner, but no vestige could he see of either of the dragons.


The Waters Subside

The Prince was very much alarmed at his perilous position, when
suddenly a Buddhist priest appeared before him, with clasped hands and
bent head, who bade him not be alarmed, as with Heaven's assistance
he would soon disperse the water. Hereupon the priest recited a short
prayer or spell, and the waters receded as rapidly as they had risen,
and finally returned to their proper channels.


The Origin of Chên-shui T'a

The broken basket became a large deep hole, some three _mu_ (about
half an English acre) in extent, in the centre of which was a fountain
which threw up a vast body of clear water. From the midst of this
there arose a pagoda, which rose and fell with the water, floating on
the top like a vessel; the spire thrusting itself far up into the sky,
and swaying about like the mast of a ship in a storm.

The Prince returned to the city filled with wonder at what he
had seen, and with joy at having so successfully carried out the
directions contained in the packet. On all sides he was greeted by
the acclamations of the people, who hailed him as the saviour of
Peking. Since that time Peking has never had the misfortune to be
without water.

The pagoda is called the Pagoda on the Hill of the Imperial Spring
(Yü Ch'üan Shan T'a; more commonly Chên-shui T'a, 'Water-repressing
Pagoda'). [27] The spring is still there, and day and night,
unceasingly, its clear waters bubble up and flow eastward to Peking,
which would now be a barren wilderness but for Yen Wang's pursuit of
the water.



CHAPTER VIII

Myths of Fire


The Ministry of Fire

The celestial organization of Fire is the fifth Ministry, and is
presided over by a President, Lo Hsüan, whose titular designation is
Huo-tê Hsing-chün, 'Stellar Sovereign of the Fire-virtue,' with five
subordinate ministers, four of whom are star-gods, and the fifth a
"celestial prince who receives fire": Chieh-huo T'ien-chün. Like so
many other Chinese deities, the five were all ministers of the tyrant
emperor Chou.

It is related that Lo Hsüan was originally a Taoist priest known as
Yen-chung Hsien, of the island Huo-lung, 'Fire-dragon.' His face was
the colour of ripe fruit of the jujube-tree, his hair and beard red,
the former done up in the shape of a fish-tail, and he had three
eyes. He wore a red cloak ornamented with the _pa kua_; his horse
snorted flames from its nostrils and fire darted from its hoofs.

While fighting in the service of the son of the tyrant emperor,
Lo Hsüan suddenly changed himself into a giant with three heads and
six arms. In each of his hands he held a magic weapon. These were a
seal which reflected the heavens and the earth, a wheel of the five
fire-dragons, a gourd containing ten thousand fire-crows, and, in
the other hands, two swords which floated like smoke, and a column
of smoke several thousands of _li_ long enclosing swords of fire.


A Conflagration

Having arrived at the city of Hsi Ch'i, Lo Hsüan sent forth his
smoke-column, the air was filled with swords of fire, the ten thousand
fire-crows, emerging from the gourd, spread themselves over the town,
and a terrible conflagration broke out, the whole place being ablaze
in a few minutes.

At this juncture there appeared in the sky the Princess Lung Chi,
daughter of Wang-mu Niang-niang; forthwith she spread over the
city her shroud of mist and dew, and the fire was extinguished by a
heavy downpour of rain. All the mysterious mechanisms of Lo Hsüan
lost their efficacy, and the magician took to his heels down the
side of the mountain. There he was met by Li, the Pagoda-bearer,
[28] who threw his golden pagoda into the air. The pagoda fell on Lo
Hsüan's head and broke his skull.


C'ih Ching-tzu

Of the various fire-gods, Ch'ih Ching-tzu, the principle of spiritual
fire, is one of the five spirits representing the Five Elements. He
is Fire personified, which has its birth in the south, on Mount
Shih-t'ang. He himself and everything connected with him--his skin,
hair, beard, trousers, cloak of leaves, etc.--are all of the colour of
fire, though he is sometimes represented with a blue cap resembling
the blue tip of a flame. He appeared in the presence of Huang Lao
in a fire-cloud. He it was who obtained fire from the wood of the
mulberry-tree, and the heat of this fire, joined with the moisture
of water, developed the germs of terrestrial beings.


The Red Emperor

Chu Jung, though also otherwise personified, is generally regarded as
having been a legendary emperor who made his first appearance in the
time of Hsien Yuan (2698-2598 B.C.). In his youth he asked Kuang-shou
Lao-jên, 'Old Longevity,' to grant him immortality. "The time has
not yet come," replied Old Longevity; "before it does you have to
become an emperor. I will give you the means of reaching the end you
desire. Give orders that after you are dead you are to be buried on
the southern slope of the sacred mountain Hêng Shan; there you will
learn the doctrine of Ch'ih Ching-tzu and will become immortal."

The Emperor Hsien Yüan, having abdicated the throne, sent for Chu Jung,
and bestowed upon him the crown. Chu Jung, having become emperor,
taught the people the use of fire and the advantages to be derived
therefrom. In those early times the forests were filled with venomous
reptiles and savage animals; he ordered the peasants to set fire to the
brushwood to drive away these dangerous neighbours and keep them at a
distance. He also taught his subjects the art of purifying, forging,
and welding metals by the action of fire. He was nicknamed Ch'ih Ti,
'the Red Emperor.' He reigned for more than two hundred years, and
became an Immortal, His capital was the ancient city of Kuei, thirty
_li_ north-east of Hsin-chêng Hsien, in the Prefecture of K'ai-fêng
Fu, Honan. His tomb is on the southern slope of Heng Shan. The peak
is known as Chu Jung Peak. His descendants, who went to live in the
south, were the ancestors of the Directors of Fire.


Hui Lu

The most popular God of Fire, however, is Hui Lu, a celebrated
magician who, according to the _Shên hsien t'ung chien_, lived some
time before the reign of Ti K'u (2436-2366 B.C.), the father of Yao
the Great, and had a mysterious bird named Pi Fang and a hundred other
fire-birds shut up in a gourd. He had only to let them out to set up
a conflagration which would extend over the whole country.

Huang Ti ordered Chu Jung to fight Hui Lu and also to subdue the
rebel Chih Yu. Chu Jung had a large bracelet of pure gold--a most
wonderful and effective weapon. He hurled it into the air, and it
fell on Hui Lu's neck, throwing him to the ground and rendering him
incapable of moving. Finding resistance impossible, he asked mercy
from his victor and promised to be his follower in the spiritual
contests. Subsequently he always called himself Huo-shih Chih T'u,
'the Disciple of the Master of Fire.'


The Fire-emperor

Shen Nung, the God of Agriculture, also adds to his other functions
those appertaining to the God of Fire, the reason being that when
he succeeded the Emperor Fu Hsi on the throne he adopted fire as
the emblem of his government, just as Huang Ti adopted the symbol
of Earth. Thus he came to be called Huo Ti, the 'Fire-emperor.' He
taught his subjects the use of fire for smelting metals and making
implements and weapons, and the use of oil in lamps, etc. All the
divisions of his official hierarchy were connected in some way with
this element; thus, there were the Ministers of Fire generally, the
officers of Fire of the North, South, etc. Becoming thus doubly the
patron of fire, a second fire symbol (_huo_) was added to his name,
changing it from Huo Ti, 'Fire-emperor,' to Yen Ti, 'Blazing Emperor,'



CHAPTER IX

Myths of Epidemics, Medicine, Exorcism, Etc.


The Ministry of Epidemics

The gods of epidemics, etc., belong to the sixth, ninth, second,
and third celestial Ministries. The composition of the Ministry of
Epidemics is arranged differently in different works as Epidemics
(regarded as epidemics on earth, but as demons in Heaven) of the
Centre, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, or as the marshals clothed
in yellow, green, red, white, and blue respectively, or as the Officers
of the East, West, South, and North, with two additional members:
a Taoist who quells the plague, and the Grand Master who exhorts
people to do right.

With regard to the Ministry of Seasonal Epidemics, it is related that
in the sixth moon of the eleventh year (A.D. 599) of the reign of Kao
Tsu, founder of the Sui dynasty, five stalwart persons appeared in
the air, clothed in robes of five colours, each carrying different
objects in his hands: the first a spoon and earthenware vase, the
second a leather bag and sword, the third a fan, the fourth a club,
the fifth a jug of fire. The Emperor asked Chang Chü-jên, his Grand
Historiographer, who these were and if they were benevolent or evil
spirits. The official answered: "These are the five powers of the five
directions. Their appearance indicates the imminence of epidemics,
which will last throughout the four seasons of the year." "What
remedy is there, and how am I to protect the people?" inquired the
Emperor. "There is no remedy," replied the official, "for epidemics
are sent by Heaven." During that year the mortality was very great. The
Emperor built a temple to the five persons, and bestowed upon them the
title of Marshals to the Five Spirits of the Plague. During that and
the following dynasty sacrifices were offered to them on the fifth
day of the fifth moon.


The President of the Ministry

The following particulars are given concerning the President of the
Ministry, whose name was Lü Yüeh. He was an old Taoist hermit, living
at Chiu-lung Tao, 'Nine-dragon Island,' who became an Immortal. The
four members of the Ministry were his disciples. He wore a red garment,
had a blue face, red hair, long teeth, and three eyes. His war-horse
was named the Myopic Camel. He carried a magic sword, and was in the
service of Chou Wang, whose armies were concentrated at Hsi Ch'i. In
a duel with Mu-cha, brother of No-cha, he had his arm severed by a
sword-cut. In another battle with Huang T'ien-hua, son of Huang Fei-hu,
he appeared with three heads and six arms. In his many hands he held
the celestial seal, plague microbes, the flag of plague, the plague
sword, and two mysterious swords. His faces were green, and large
teeth protruded from his mouths. Huang T'ien-hua threw his magic
weapon, Huo-lung Piao, and hit him on the leg. Just at that moment
Chiang Tzu-ya arrived with his goblin-dispelling whip and felled him
with a blow. He was able, however, to rise again, and took to flight.


The Plague-disseminating Umbrellas

Resolved to avenge his defeat, he joined General Hsü Fang, who was
commanding an army corps at Ch'uan-yün Kuan. Round the mountain he
organized a system of entrenchments and of infection against their
enemies. Yang Chien released his celestial hound, which bit Lü Yüeh
on the crown of his head. Then Yang Jên, armed with his magic fan,
pursued Lü Yüeh and compelled him to retreat to his fortress. Lü
Yüeh mounted the central raised part of the embattled wall and opened
all his plague-disseminating umbrellas, with the object of infecting
Yang Jên, but the latter, simply by waving his fan, reduced all the
umbrellas to dust, and also burned the fort, and with it Lü Yüeh.

Similar wonderful achievements are related in short notices in the
_Fêng shên yen i_ of the four other officers of the Ministry.

Li P'ing, the sixth officer of the Ministry, met a like fate to that
of Lü Yüeh after having failed to induce the latter to abandon the
cause of the Shang dynasty for that of Chou.


The Five Graduates

In Père Henri Doré's _Recherches sur les Superstitions en Chine_
is given an interesting legend concerning five other gods of
epidemics. These gods are called the Wu Yüeh, 'Five Mountains,'
and are worshipped in the temple San-i Ko at Ju-kao, especially in
outbreaks of contagious diseases and fevers. A sufferer goes to the
temple and promises offerings to the gods in the event of recovery. The
customary offering is five small wheaten loaves, called _shao ping_,
and a pound of meat.

The Wu Yüeh are stellar devils whom Yü Huang sent to be reincarnated on
earth. Their names were T'ien Po-hsüeh, Tung Hung-wên, Ts'ai Wên-chü,
Chao Wu-chên, and Huang Ying-tu, and they were reincarnated at
Nan-ch'ang Fu, Chien-ch'ang Fu, Yen-mên Kuan, Yang Chou, and Nanking
respectively. They were all noted for their brilliant intellects,
and were clever scholars who passed their graduate's examination
with success.

When Li Shih-min ascended the throne, in A.D. 627, he called together
all the _literati_ of the Empire to take the Doctor's Examination
in the capital. Our five graduates started for the metropolis, but,
losing their way, were robbed by brigands, and had to beg help in
order to reach the end of their journey. By good luck they all met in
the temple San-i Ko, and related to each other the various hardships
they had undergone. But when they eventually reached the capital
the examination was over, and they were out in the streets without
resources. So they took an oath of brotherhood for life and death. They
pawned some of the few clothes they possessed, and buying some musical
instruments formed themselves into a band of strolling musicians.

The first bought a drum, the second a seven-stringed guitar, the
third a mandolin, the fourth a clarinet, and the fifth and youngest
composed songs.

Thus they went through the streets of the capital giving their
concerts, and Fate decreed that Li Shih-min should hear their
melodies. Charmed with the sweet sounds, he asked Hsü Mao-kung
whence came this band of musicians, whose skill was certainly
exceptional. Having made inquiries, the minister related their
experiences to the Emperor. Li Shih-min ordered them to be brought
into his presence, and after hearing them play and sing appointed them
to his private suite, and henceforth they accompanied him wherever
he went.


The Emperors Strategy

The Emperor bore malice toward Chang T'ien-shih, the Master of
the Taoists, because he refused to pay the taxes on his property,
and conceived a plan to bring about his destruction. He caused a
spacious subterranean chamber to be dug under the reception-hall of
his palace. A wire passed through the ceiling to where the Emperor
sat. He could thus at will give the signal for the music to begin
or stop. Having stationed the five musicians in this subterranean
chamber, he summoned the Master of the Taoists to his presence and
invited him to a banquet. During the course of this he pulled the wire,
and a subterranean babel began.

The Emperor pretended to be terrified, and allowed himself to fall
to the ground. Then, addressing himself to the T'ien-shih, he said:
"I know that you can at will catch the devilish hobgoblins which
molest human beings. You can hear for yourself the infernal row they
make in my palace. I order you under penalty of death to put a stop
to their pranks and to exterminate them."


The Musicians are Slain

Having spoken thus, the Emperor rose and left. The Master of the
Taoists brought his projecting mirror, and began to seek for the
evil spirits. In vain he inspected the palace and its precincts;
he could discover nothing. Fearing that he was lost, he in despair
threw his mirror on the floor of the reception-hall.

A minute later, sad and pensive, he stooped to pick it up; what was
his joyful surprise when he saw reflected in it the subterranean room
and the musicians! At once he drew five talismans on yellow paper,
burned them, and ordered his celestial general, Chao Kung-ming, to
take his sword and kill the five musicians. The order was promptly
executed, and the T'ien-shih informed the Emperor, who received the
news with ridicule, not believing it to be true. He went to his seat
and pulled the wire, but all remained silent. A second and third time
he gave the signal, but without response. He then ordered his Grand
Officer to ascertain what had happened. The officer found the five
graduates bathed in their blood, and lifeless.

The Emperor, furious, reproached the Master of the Taoists. "But,"
replied the T'ien-shih, "was it not your Majesty who ordered me under
pain of death to exterminate the authors of this pandemonium?" Li
Shih-min could not reply. He dismissed the Master of the Taoists and
ordered the five victims to be buried.


The Emperor Tormented

After the funeral ceremonies, apparitions appeared at night in the
place where they had been killed, and the palace became a babel. The
spirits threw bricks and broke the tiles on the roofs.

The Emperor ordered his uncomfortable visitors to go to the T'ien-shih
who had murdered them. They obeyed, and, seizing the garments of the
Master of the Taoists, swore not to allow him any rest if he would
not restore them to life.

To appease them the Taoist said: "I am going to give each of you a
wonderful object. You are then to return and spread epidemics among
wicked people, beginning in the imperial palace and with the Emperor
himself, with the object of forcing him to canonize you."

One received a fan, another a gourd filled with fire, the third a
metallic ring to encircle people's heads, the fourth a stick made of
wolves' teeth, and the fifth a cup of lustral water.

The spirit-graduates left full of joy, and made their first experiment
on Li Shih-min. The first gave him feverish chills by waving his
fan, the second burned him with the fire from his gourd, the third
encircled his head with the ring, causing him violent headache, the
fourth struck him with his stick, and the fifth poured out his cup
of lustral water on his head.

The same night a similar tragedy took place in the palace of the
Empress and the two chief imperial concubines.

T'ai-po Chin-hsing, however, informed Yü Huang what had happened,
and, touched with compassion, he sent three Immortals with pills and
talismans which cured the Empress and the ladies of the palace.


The Graduates Canonized

Li Shih-min, having also recovered his health, summoned the five
deceased graduates and expressed his regret for the unfortunate issue
of his design against the T'ien-shih. He proceeded: "To the south of
the capital is the temple San-i Ko. I will change its name to Hsiang
Shan Wu Yüeh Shên, 'Fragrant Hill of the Five Mountain Spirits.' On
the twenty-eighth day of the ninth moon betake yourselves to that
temple to receive the seals of your canonization." He conferred upon
them the title of Ti, 'Emperor.'


The Ministry of Medicine

The celestial Ministry of Medicine is composed of three main
divisions comprising: (1) the Ancestral Gods of the Chinese race;
(2) the King of Remedies, Yao Wang; and (3) the Specialists. There
is a separate Ministry of Smallpox. This latter controls and cures
smallpox, and the establishment of a separate celestial Ministry is
significant of the prevalence and importance of the affliction. The
ravages of smallpox in China, indeed, have been terrific: so much so,
that, until recent years, it was considered as natural and inevitable
for a child to have smallpox as for it to cut its teeth. One of the
ceremonial questions addressed by a visitor to the parent of a child
was always _Ch'u la hua'rh mei yu_? "Has he had the smallpox?" and a
child who escaped the scourge was often, if not as a rule, regarded
with disfavour and, curiously enough, as a weakling. Probably the
train of thought in the Chinese mind was that, as it is the fittest
who survive, those who have successfully passed through the process of
"putting out the flowers" have proved their fitness in the struggle
for existence. Nowadays vaccination is general, and the number of
pockmarked faces seen is much smaller than it used to be--in fact,
the pockmarked are now the exception. But, as far as I have been
able to ascertain, the Ministry of Smallpox has not been abolished,
and possibly its members, like those of some more mundane ministries,
continue to draw large salaries for doing little or no work.


The Medicine-gods

The chief gods of medicine are the mythical kings P'an Ku, Fu Hsi,
Shên Nung, and Huang Ti. The first two, being by different writers
regarded as the first progenitor or creator of the Chinese people,
are alternatives, so that Fu Hsi, Shên Nung, and Huang Ti may be said
to be a sort of ancestral triad of medicine-gods, superior to the
actual God or King of Medicine, Yao Wang. Of P'an Ku we have spoken
sufficiently in Chapter III, and with regard to Fu Hsi, also called
T'ien Huang Shih, 'the Celestial Emperor,' the mythical sovereign
and supposed inventor of cooking, musical instruments, the calendar,
hunting, fishing, etc., the chief interest for our present purpose
centres in his discovery of the _pa kua_, or Eight Trigrams. It is on
the strength of these trigrams that Fu Hsi is regarded as the chief
god of medicine, since it is by their mystical power that the Chinese
physicians influence the minds and maladies of their patients. He
is represented as holding in front of him a disk on which the signs
are painted.


The Ministry of Exorcism

The Ministry of Exorcism is a Taoist invention and is composed of seven
chief ministers, whose duty is to expel evil spirits from dwellings
and generally to counteract the annoyances of infernal demons. The
two gods usually referred to in the popular legends are P'an Kuan and
Chung K'uei. The first is really the Guardian of the Living and the
Dead in the Otherworld, Fêng-tu P'an Kuan (Fêng-tu or Fêng-tu Ch'êng
being the region beyond the tomb). He was originally a scholar named
Ts'ui Chio, who became Magistrate of Tz'u Chou, and later Minister
of Ceremonies. After his death he was appointed to the spiritual post
above mentioned. His best-known achievement is his prolongation of the
life of the Emperor T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty by twenty years by
changing _i_, 'one,' into _san_, 'three,' in the life-register kept
by the gods. The term P'an Kuan is, however, more generally used as
the designation of an officer or civil or military attendant upon
a god than of any special individual, and the original P'an Kuan,
'the Decider of Life in Hades,' has been gradually supplanted in
popular favour by Chung K'uei, 'the Protector against Evil Spirits.'


The Exorcism of 'Emptiness and Devastation'

The Emperor Ming Huang of the T'ang dynasty, also known as T'ang
Hsüan Tsung, in the reign-period K'ai Yüan (A.D. 712-742), after an
expedition to Mount Li in Shensi, was attacked by fever. During a
nightmare he saw a small demon fantastically dressed in red trousers,
with a shoe on one foot but none on the other, and a shoe hanging from
his girdle. Having broken through a bamboo gate, he took possession
of an embroidered box and a jade flute, and then began to make a
tour of the palace, sporting and gambolling. The Emperor grew angry
and questioned him. "Your humble servant," replied the little demon,
"is named Hsü Hao, 'Emptiness and Devastation,'" "I have never heard
of such a person," said the Emperor. The demon rejoined, "Hsü means to
desire Emptiness, because in Emptiness one can fly just as one wishes;
Hao, 'Devastation,' changes people's joy to sadness. "The Emperor,
irritated by this flippancy, was about to call his guard, when suddenly
a great devil appeared, wearing a tattered head-covering and a blue
robe, a horn clasp on his belt, and official boots on his feet. He
went up to the sprite, tore out one of his eyes, crushed it up, and ate
it. The Emperor asked the newcomer who he was. "Your humble servant,"
he replied, "is Chung K'uei, Physician of Tung-nan Shan in Shensi. In
the reign-period Wu Tê (A.D. 618-627) of the Emperor Kao Tsu of the
T'ang dynasty I was ignominiously rejected and unjustly defrauded
of a first class in the public examinations. Overwhelmed with shame,
I committed suicide on the steps of the imperial palace. The Emperor
ordered me to be buried in a green robe [reserved for members of the
imperial clan], and out of gratitude for that favour I swore to protect
the sovereign in any part of the Empire against the evil machinations
of the demon Hsü Hao." At these words the Emperor awoke and found
that the fever had left him. His Majesty called for Wu Tao-tzu (one
of the most celebrated Chinese artists) to paint the portrait of the
person he had seen in his dream. The work was so well done that the
Emperor recognized it as the actual demon he had seen in his sleep,
and rewarded the artist with a hundred taels of gold. The portrait is
said to have been still in the imperial palace during the Sung dynasty.

Another version of the legend says that Chung K'uefs essay was
recognized by the examiners as equal to the work of the best authors
of antiquity, but that the Emperor rejected him on account of his
extremely ugly features, whereupon he committed suicide in his
presence, was honoured by the Emperor and accorded a funeral as if
he had been the successful first candidate, and canonized with the
title of Great Spiritual Chaser of Demons for the Whole Empire.



CHAPTER X

The Goddess of Mercy


The Guardian Angel of Buddhism

As Mary is the guiding spirit of Rome, so is Kuan Yin of the Buddhist
faith.

According to a beautiful Chinese legend, Kuan Yin. when about to
enter Heaven, heard a cry of anguish rising from the earth beneath
her, and, moved by pity, paused as her feet touched the glorious
threshold. Hence her name 'Kuan (Shih) Yin' (one who notices or hears
the cry, or prayer, of the world).

Kuan Yin was at one time always represented as a man; but in the
T'ang dynasty and Five Dynasties we find him represented as a woman,
and he has been generally, though not invariably, so represented
since that time.

In old Buddhism Shâkyamuni was the chief god, and in many temples
he still nominally occupies the seat of honour, but he is completely
eclipsed by the God or Goddess of Mercy.

"The men love her, the children adore her, and the women chant her
prayers. Whatever the temple may be, there is nearly always a chapel
for Kuan Yin within its precincts; she lives in many homes, and in
many, many hearts she sits enshrined. She is the patron goddess of
mothers, and when we remember the relative value of a son in Chinese
estimation we can appreciate the heartiness of the worship. She
protects in sorrow, and so millions of times the prayer is offered,
'Great mercy, great pity, save from sorrow, save from suffering,' or,
as it is in the books, 'Great mercy, great pity, save from misery,
save from evil, broad, great, efficacious, responsive Kuan Yin Buddha,'
She saves the tempest-tossed sailor, and so has eclipsed the Empress
of Heaven, who, as the female Neptune, is the patroness of seamen;
in drought the mandarins worship the Dragon and the Pearly Emperor,
but if they fail the bronze Goddess of Mercy from the hills brings
rain. Other gods are feared, she is loved; others have black,
scornful faces, her countenance is radiant as gold, and gentle as
the moon-beam; she draws near to the people and the people draw near
to her. Her throne is upon the Isle of Pootoo [P'u T'o], to which
she came floating upon a water-lily. She is the model of Chinese
beauty, and to say a lady or a little girl is a 'Kuan Yin' is the
highest compliment that can be paid to grace and loveliness. She is
fortunate in having three birthdays, the nineteenth of the second,
sixth, and ninth moons." There are many metamorphoses of this goddess.


The Buddhist Saviour

"She is called Kuan Yin because at any cry of misery she 'hears the
voice and removes the sorrow.' Her appellation is 'Taking-away-fear
Buddha,' If in the midst of the fire the name of Kuan Yin is called,
the fire cannot burn; if tossed by mountain billows, call her name,
and shallow waters will be reached. If merchants go across the sea
seeking gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones, and a storm comes
up and threatens to carry the crew to the evil devil's kingdom,
if one on board calls on the name of Kuan Yin, the ship will be
saved. If one goes into a conflict and calls on the name of Kuan
Yin, the sword and spear of the enemy fall harmless. If the three
thousand great kingdoms are visited by demons, call on her name,
and these demons cannot with an evil eye look on a man. If, within,
you have evil thoughts, only call on Kuan Yin, and your heart will
be purified, Anger and wrath may be dispelled by calling on the name
of Kuan Yin. A lunatic who prays to Kuan Yin will become sane. Kuan
Yin gives sons to mothers, and if the mother asks for a daughter she
will be beautiful. Two men--one chanting the names of the 6,200,000
Buddhas, in number like the sands of the Ganges, and the other simply
calling on Kuan Yin--have equal merit. Kuan Yin may take the form of
a Buddha, a prince, a priest, a nun, a scholar, any form or shape,
go to any kingdom, and preach the law throughout the earth."


Miao Chuang desires an Heir

In the twenty-first year of the reign of Ta Hao, the Great Great
One, of the Golden Heavenly Dynasty, a man named P'o Chia, whose
first name was Lo Yü, an enterprising kinglet of Hsi Yii, seized the
throne for twenty years, after carrying on a war for a space of three
years. His kingdom was known as Hsing Lin, and the title of his reign
as Miao Chuang.

The kingdom of Hsing Lin was, so says the Chinese writer, situated
between India on the west, the kingdom of T'ien Cheng on the south,
and the kingdom of Siam on the north, and was 3000 _li_ in length. The
boundaries differ according to different authors. Of this kingdom
the two pillars of State were the Grand Minister Chao Chen and the
General Ch'u Chieh. The Queen Pao Tê, whose maiden name was Po Ya, and
the King Miao Chuang had lived nearly half a century without having
any male issue to succeed to the throne. This was a source of great
grief to them. Po Ya suggested to the King that the God of Hua Shan,
the sacred mountain in the west, had the reputation of being always
willing to help; and that if he prayed to him and asked his pardon
for having shed so much blood during the wars which preceded his
accession to the throne he might obtain an heir.

Welcoming this suggestion, the King sent for Chao Chên and ordered
him to dispatch to the temple of Hua Shan the two Chief Ministers of
Ceremonies, Hsi Hêng-nan and Chih Tu, with instructions to request
fifty Buddhist and Taoist priests to pray for seven days and seven
nights in order that the King might obtain a son. When that period
was over, the King and Queen would go in person to offer sacrifices
in the temple.


Prayers to the Gods

The envoys took with them many rare and valuable presents, and for
seven days and seven nights the temple resounded with the sound of
drums, bells, and all kinds of instruments, intermingled with the
voices of the praying priests. On their arrival the King and Queen
offered sacrifices to the god of the sacred mountain.

But the God of Hua Shan knew that the King had been deprived of a
male heir as a punishment for the bloody hecatombs during his three
years' war. The priests, however, interceded for him, urging that the
King had come in person to offer the sacrifices, wherefore the God
could not altogether reject his prayer. So he ordered Ch'ien-li Yen,
'Thousand-_li_ Eye,' and Shun-fêng Erh, 'Favourable-wind Ear,' [29]
to go quickly and ascertain if there were not some worthy person who
was on the point of being reincarnated into this world.

The two messengers shortly returned, and stated that in India, in the
Chiu Ling Mountains, in the village of Chih-shu Yüan, there lived a
good man named Shih Ch'in-ch'ang, whose ancestors for three generations
had observed all the ascetic rules of the Buddhists. This man was the
father of three children, the eldest Shih Wên, the second Shih Chin,
and the third Shih Shan, all worthy followers of the great Buddha.


The Murder of the Tais

Wang Chê, a brigand chief, and thirty of his followers, finding
themselves pursued and harassed by the Indian soldiers, without
provisions or shelter, dying of hunger, went to Shih Wên and begged for
something to eat. Knowing that they were evildoers, Shih Wên and his
two brothers refused to give them anything; if they starved, they said,
the peasants would no longer suffer from their depredations. Thereupon
the brigands decided that it was a case of life for life, and broke
into the house of a rich family of the name of Tai, burning their
home, killing a hundred men, women, and children, and carrying off
everything they possessed.

The local _t'u-ti_ at once made a report to Yü Huang.

"This Shih family," replied the god, "for three generations has
given itself up to good works, and certainly the brigands were not
deserving of any pity. However, it is impossible to deny that the
three brothers Shih, in refusing them food, morally compelled them to
loot the Tai family's house, putting all to the sword or flames. Is
not this the same as if they had committed the crime themselves? Let
them be arrested and put in chains in the celestial prison, and let
them never see the light of the sun again."

"Since," said the messenger to the God of Hua Shan, "your gratitude
toward Miao Chuang compels you to grant him an heir, why not ask Yü
Huang to pardon their crime and reincarnate them in the womb of the
Queen Po Ya, so that they may begin a new terrestrial existence and
give themselves up to good works?" As a result, the God of Hua Shan
called the Spirit of the Wind and gave him a message for Yü Huang.


A Message for Yü Huang

The message was as follows: "King Miao Chuang has offered sacrifice
to me and begged me to grant him an heir. But since by his wars he
has caused the deaths of a large number of human beings, he does not
deserve to have his request granted. Now these three brothers Shih
have offended your Majesty by constraining the brigand Wang Che to be
guilty of murder and robbery. I pray you to take into account their
past good works and pardon their crime, giving them an opportunity
of expiating it by causing them all three to be reborn, but of the
female sex, in the womb of Po Ya the Queen. [30] In this way they
will be able to atone for their crime and save many souls." Yü Huang
was pleased to comply, and he ordered the Spirit of the North Pole
to release the three captives and take their souls to the palace of
King Miao Chuang, where in three years' time they would be changed
into females in the womb of Queen Po Ya.


Birth of the Three Daughters

The King, who was anxiously expecting day by day the birth of an heir,
was informed one morning that a daughter had been born to him. She was
named Miao Ch'ing. A year went by, and another daughter was born. This
one was named Miao Yin. When, at the end of the third year, another
daughter was born, the King, beside himself with rage, called his
Grand Minister Chao Chên and, all disconsolate, said to him, "I am
past fifty, and have no male child to succeed me on the throne. My
dynasty will therefore become extinct. Of what use have been all my
labours and all my victories?" Chao Chen tried to console him, saying,
"Heaven has granted you three daughters: no human power can change this
divine decree. When these princesses have grown up, we will choose
three sons-in-law for your Majesty, and you can elect your successor
from among them. Who will dare to dispute his right to the throne?"

The King named the third daughter Miao Shan. She became noted for her
modesty and many other good qualities, and scrupulously observed all
the tenets of the Buddhist doctrines. Virtuous living seemed, indeed,
to be to her a second nature.


Miao Shan's Ambition

One day, when the three sisters were playing in the palace garden of
Perpetual Spring, Miao Shan, with a serious mien, said to her sisters,
"Riches and glory are like the rain in spring or the morning dew;
a little while, and all is gone. Kings and emperors think to enjoy to
the end the good fortune which places them in a rank apart from other
human beings; but sickness lays them low in their coffins, and all
is over. Where are now all those powerful dynasties which have laid
down the law to the world? As for me, I desire nothing more than a
peaceful retreat on a lone mountain, there to attempt the attainment
of perfection. If some day I can reach a high degree of goodness,
then, borne on the clouds of Heaven, I will travel throughout the
universe, passing in the twinkling of an eye from east to west. I
will rescue my father and mother, and bring them to Heaven; I will
save the miserable and afflicted on earth; I will convert the spirits
which do evil, and cause them to do good. That is my only ambition."


Her Sisters Marry

No sooner had she finished speaking than a lady of the Court came to
announce that the King had found sons-in-law to his liking for his two
elder daughters. The wedding-feast was to be the very next day. "Be
quick," she added, "and prepare your presents, your dresses, and so
forth, for the King's order is imperative." The husband chosen for Miao
Ch'ing was a First Academician named Chao K'uei. His personal name was
Tê Ta, and he was the son of a celebrated minister of the reigning
dynasty. Miao Yin's husband-elect was a military officer named Ho
Fêng, whose personal name was Ch'ao Yang. He had passed first in the
examination for the Military Doctorate. The marriage ceremonies were
of a magnificent character. Festivity followed festivity; the newly-wed
were duly installed in their palaces, and general happiness prevailed.


Miao Shan's Renunciation

There now remained only Miao Shan. The King and Queen wished to find
for her a man famous for knowledge and virtue, capable of ruling the
kingdom, and worthy of being the successor to the throne. So the
King called her and explained to her all his plans regarding her,
and how all his hopes rested on her.

"It is a crime," she replied, "for me not to comply with my father's
wishes; but you must pardon me if my ideas differ from yours."

"Tell me what your ideas are," said the King.

"I do not wish to marry," she rejoined. "I wish to attain to perfection
and to Buddhahood. Then I promise that I will not be ungrateful
to you."

"Wretch of a daughter," cried the King in anger, "you think you can
teach me, the head of the State and ruler of so great a people! Has
anyone ever known a daughter of a king become a nun? Can a good woman
be found in that class? Put aside all these mad ideas of a nunnery,
and tell me at once if you will marry a First Academician or a Military
First Graduate."

"Who is there," answered the girl, "who does not love the royal
dignity?--what person who does not aspire to the happiness of
marriage? However, I wish to become a nun. With respect to the riches
and glory of this world, my heart is as cold as a dead cinder, and
I feel a keen desire to make it ever purer and purer."

The King rose in fury, and wished to cast her out from his
presence. Miao Shan, knowing she could not openly disobey his orders,
took another course. "If you absolutely insist upon my marrying,"
she said, "I will consent; only I must marry a physician."

"A physician!" growled the King. "Are men of good family and talents
wanting in my kingdom? What an absurd idea, to want to marry a
physician!"

"My wish is," said Miao Shan, "to heal humanity of all its ills; of
cold, heat, lust, old age, and all infirmities. I wish to equalize all
classes, putting rich and poor on the same footing, to have community
of goods, without distinction of persons. If you will grant me my wish,
I can still in this way become a Buddha, a Saviour of Mankind. There
is no necessity to call in the diviners to choose an auspicious day. I
am ready to be married now."


She is Exiled to the Garden

At these words the King was mad with rage. "Wicked imbecile!" he
cried, "what diabolical suggestions are these that you dare to make
in my presence?"

Without further ado he called Ho T'ao, who on that day was officer
of the palace guard. When he had arrived and kneeled to receive the
King's commands, the latter said: "This wicked nun dishonours me. Take
from her her Court robes, and drive her from my presence. Take her
to the Queen's garden, and let her perish there of cold: that will
be one care less for my troubled heart."

Miao Shan fell on her face and thanked the King, and then went with
the officer to the Queen's garden, where she began to lead her retired
hermit life, with the moon for companion and the wind for friend,
content to see all obstacles overthrown on her way to Nirvana, the
highest state of spiritual bliss, and glad to exchange the pleasures
of the palace for the sweetness of solitude.


The Nunnery of the White Bird

After futile attempts to dissuade her from her purpose by the Court
ladies, her parents, and sisters, the King and Queen next deputed
Miao Hung and Ts'ui Hung to make a last attempt to bring their
misguided daughter to her senses. Miao Shan, annoyed at this renewed
solicitation, in a haughty manner ordered them never again to come and
torment her with their silly prattle. "I have found out," she added,
"that there is a well-known temple at Ju Chou in Lung-shu Hsien. This
Buddhist temple is known as the Nunnery of the White Bird, Po-ch'iao
Ch'an-ssu. In it five hundred nuns give themselves up to the study
of the true doctrine and the way of perfection. Go then and ask the
Queen on my behalf to obtain the King's permission for me to retire
thither. If you can procure me this favour, I will not fail to reward
you later."

Miao Chuang summoned the messengers and inquired the result of their
efforts. "She is more unapproachable than ever," they replied; "she has
even ordered us to ask the Queen to obtain your Majesty's permission
to retire to the Nunnery of the White Bird in Lung-shu Hsien."

The King gave his permission, but sent strict orders to the nunnery,
instructing the nuns to do all in their power to dissuade the Princess
when she arrived from carrying out her intention to remain.


Her Reception at the Nunnery

This Nunnery of the White Bird had been built by Huang Ti, and
the five hundred nuns who lived in it had as Superior a lady named
I Yu, who was remarkable for her virtue. On receipt of the royal
mandate, she had summoned Chêng Chêng-ch'ang, the choir-mistress,
and informed her that Princess Miao Shan, owing to a disagreement
with her father, would shortly arrive at the temple. She requested
her to receive the visitor courteously, but at the same time to do
all she could to dissuade her from adopting the life of a nun. Having
given these instructions, the Superior, accompanied by two novices,
went to meet Miao Shan at the gate of the temple. On her arrival
they saluted her. The Princess returned the salute, but said: "I
have just left the world in order to place myself under your orders:
why do you come and salute me on my arrival? I beg you to be so good
as to take me into the temple, in order that I may pay my respects to
the Buddha." I Yu led her into the principal hall, and instructed the
nuns to light incense-sticks, ring the bells, and beat the drums. The
visit to the temple finished, she went into the preaching-hall, where
she greeted her instructresses. The latter obeyed the King's command
and endeavoured to persuade the Princess to return to her home, but,
as none of their arguments had any effect, it was at length decided to
give her a trial, and to put her in charge of the kitchen, where she
could prepare the food for the nunnery, and generally be at the service
of all. If she did not give satisfaction they could dismiss her.


She makes Offering to the Buddha

Miao Shan joyfully agreed, and proceeded to make her humble submission
to the Buddha. She knelt before Ju Lai, and made offering to him,
praying as follows: "Great Buddha, full of goodness and mercy, your
humble servant wishes to leave the world. Grant that I may never
yield to the temptations which will be sent to try my faith." Miao
Shan further promised to observe all the regulations of the nunnery
and to obey the superiors.


Spiritual Aid

This generous self-sacrifice touched the heart of Yü Huang, the Master
of Heaven, who summoned the Spirit of the North Star and instructed
him as follows: "Miao Shan, the third daughter of King Miao Chuang,
has renounced the world in order to devote herself to the attainment of
perfection. Her father has consigned her to the Nunnery of the White
Bird. She has undertaken without grumbling the burden of all the work
in the nunnery. If she is left without help, who is there who will be
willing to adopt the virtuous life? Do you go quickly and order the
Three Agents, the Gods of the Five Sacred Peaks, the Eight Ministers
of the Heavenly Dragon, Ch'ieh Lan, and the _t'u-ti_ to send her help
at once. Tell the Sea-dragon to dig her a well near the kitchen,
a tiger to bring her firewood, birds to collect vegetables for the
inmates of the nunnery, and all the spirits of Heaven to help her in
her duties, that she may give herself up without disturbance to the
pursuit of perfection. See that my commands are promptly obeyed." The
Spirit of the North Star complied without delay.


The Nunnery on Fire

Seeing all these gods arrive to help the novice, the Superior, I Yu,
held consultation with the choir-mistress, saying: "We assigned to
the Princess the burdensome work of the kitchen because she refused to
return to the world; but since she has entered on her duties the gods
of the eight caves of Heaven have come to offer her fruit, Ch'ieh Lan
sweeps the kitchen, the dragon has dug a well, the God of the Hearth
and the tiger bring her fuel, birds collect vegetables for her, the
nunnery bell every evening at dusk booms of itself, as if struck by
some mysterious hand. Obviously miracles are being performed. Hasten
and fetch the King, and beg his Majesty to recall his daughter."

Chêng Chêng-ch'ang started on her way, and, on arrival, informed
the King of all that had taken place. The King called Hu Pi-li,
the chief of the guard, and ordered him to go to the sub-prefecture
of Lung-shu Hsien at the head of an army corps of 5000 infantry and
cavalry. He was to surround the Nunnery of the White Bird and burn it
to the ground, together with the nuns. When he reached the place the
commander surrounded the nunnery with his soldiers, and set fire to
it. The five hundred doomed nuns invoked the aid of Heaven and earth,
and then, addressing Miao Shan, said: "It is you who have brought
upon us this terrible disaster."

"It is true," said Miao Shan. "I alone am the cause of your
destruction." She then knelt down and prayed to Heaven: "Great
Sovereign of the Universe, your servant is the daughter of King Miao
Chuang; you are the grandson of King Lun. Will you not rescue your
younger sister? You have left your palace; I also have left mine. You
in former times betook yourself to the snowy mountains to attain
perfection; I came here with the same object. Will you not save us
from this fiery destruction?"

Her prayer ended, Miao Shan took a bamboo hairpin from her hair,
pricked the roof of her mouth with it, and spat the flowing blood
toward Heaven. Immediately great clouds gathered in all parts of the
sky and sent down inundating showers, which put out the fire that
threatened the nunnery. The nuns threw themselves on their knees and
thanked her effusively for having saved their lives.

Hu Pi-li retired, and went in haste to inform the King of this
extraordinary occurrence. The King, enraged, ordered him to go back
at once, bring his daughter in chains, and behead her on the spot.


The Execution of Miao Shan

But the Queen, who had heard of this new plot, begged the King to grant
her daughter a last chance. "If you will give permission," she said,
"I will have a magnificent pavilion built at the side of the road
where Miao Shan will pass in chains on the way to her execution, and
will go there with our two other daughters and our sons-in-law. As
she passes we will have music, songs, feasting, everything likely
to impress her and make her contrast our luxurious life with her
miserable plight. This will surely bring her to repentance."

"I agree," said the King, "to counter-order her execution until your
preparations are complete." Nevertheless, when the time came, Miao
Shan showed nothing but disdain for all this worldly show, and to all
advances replied only: "I love not these pompous vanities; I swear
that I prefer death to the so-called joys of this world." She was then
led to the place of execution. All the Court was present. Sacrifices
were made to her as to one already dead. A Grand Minister pronounced
the sacrificial oration.

In the midst of all this the Queen appeared, and ordered the officials
to return to their posts, that she might once more exhort her daughter
to repent. But Miao Shan only listened in silence with downcast eyes.

The King felt great repugnance to shedding his daughter's blood, and
ordered her to be imprisoned in the palace, in order that he might make
a last effort to save her. "I am the King," he said; "my orders cannot
be lightly set aside. Disobedience to them involves punishment, and
in spite of my paternal love for you, if you persist in your present
attitude, you will be executed to-morrow in front of the palace gate."

The _t'u-ti_, hearing the King's verdict, went with all speed to Yü
Huang, and reported to him the sentence which had been pronounced
against Miao Shan. Yü Huang exclaimed: "Save Buddha, there is none in
the west so noble as this Princess. To-morrow, at the appointed hour,
go to the scene of execution, break the swords, and splinter the lances
they will use to kill her. See that she suffers no pain. At the moment
of her death transform yourself into a tiger, and bring her body to
the pine-wood. Having deposited it in a safe place, put a magic pill
in her mouth to arrest decay. Her triumphant soul on its return from
the lower regions must find it in a perfect state of preservation in
order to be able to re-enter it and animate it afresh. After that,
she must betake herself to Hsiang Shan on P'u T'o Island, where she
will reach the highest state of perfection."

On the day appointed, Commander Hu Pi-li led the condemned Princess
to the place of execution. A body of troops had been stationed
there to maintain order. The _t'u-ti_ was in attendance at the
palace gates. Miao Shan was radiant with joy. "To-day," she said,
"I leave the world for a better life. Hasten to take my life, but
beware of mutilating my body."

The King's warrant arrived, and suddenly the sky became overcast and
darkness fell upon the earth. A bright light surrounded Miao Shan,
and when the sword of the executioner fell upon the neck of the
victim it was broken in two. Then they thrust at her with a spear,
but the weapon fell to pieces. After that the King ordered that she be
strangled with a silken cord. A few moments later a tiger leapt into
the execution ground, dispersed the executioners, put the inanimate
body of Miao Shan on his back, and disappeared into the pine-forest. Hu
Pi-li rushed to the palace, recounted to the King full details of
all that had occurred, and received a reward of two ingots of gold.


Miao Shan visits the Infernal Regions

Meantime, Miao Shan's soul, which remained unhurt, was borne on
a cloud; when, waking as from a dream, she lifted her head and
looked round, she could not see her body. "My father has just had
me strangled," she sighed. "How is it that I find myself in this
place? Here are neither mountains, nor trees, nor vegetation; no sun,
moon, nor stars; no habitation, no sound, no cackling of a fowl nor
barking of a dog. How can I live in this desolate region?"

Suddenly a young man dressed in blue, shining with a brilliant light,
and carrying a large banner, appeared and said to her: "By order of
Yen Wang, the King of the Hells, I come to take you to the eighteen
infernal regions."

"What is this cursed place where I am now?" asked Miao Shan.

"This is the lower world, Hell," he replied. "Your refusal to marry,
and the magnanimity with which you chose an ignominious death rather
than break your resolutions, deserve the recognition of Yü Huang,
and the ten gods of the lower regions, impressed and pleased at your
eminent virtue, have sent me to you. Fear nothing and follow me."

Thus Miao Shan began her visit to all the infernal regions. The Gods
of the Ten Hells came to congratulate her.

"Who am I," asked Miao Shan, "that you should deign to take the
trouble to show me such respect?"

"We have heard," they replied, "that when you recite your prayers
all evil disappears as if by magic. We should like to hear you pray."

"I consent," replied Miao Shan, "on condition that all the condemned
ones in the ten infernal regions be released from their chains in
order to listen to me."

At the appointed time the condemned were led in by Niu T'ou ('Ox-head')
and Ma Mien ('Horse-face'), the two chief constables of Hell, and
Miao Shan began her prayers. No sooner had she finished than Hell was
suddenly transformed into a paradise of joy, and the instruments of
torture into lotus-flowers.


Hell a Paradise

P'an Kuan, the keeper of the Register of the Living and the Dead,
presented a memorial to Yen Wang stating that since Miao Shan's
arrival there was no more pain in Hell; and all the condemned were
beside themselves with happiness. "Since it has always been decreed,"
he added, "that, in justice, there must be both a Heaven and a Hell,
if you do not send this saint back to earth, there will no longer be
any Hell, but only a Heaven."

"Since that is so," said Yen Wang, "let forty-eight flag-bearers
escort her across the Styx Bridge [Nai-ho Ch'iao], that she may be
taken to the pine-forest to reenter her body, and resume her life in
the upper world."

The King of the Hells having paid his respects to her, the youth
in blue conducted her soul back to her body, which she found lying
under a pine-tree. Having reentered it, Miao Shan found herself alive
again. A bitter sigh escaped from her lips. "I remember," she said,
"all that I saw and heard in Hell. I sigh for the moment which will
find me free of all impediments, and yet my soul has re-entered my
body. Here, without any lonely mountain on which to give myself up
to the pursuit of perfection, what will become of me?" Great tears
welled from her eyes.


A Test of Virtue

Just then Ju Lai Buddha appeared. "Why have you come to this place?" he
asked. Miao Shan explained why the King had put her to death, and
how after her descent into Hell her soul had re-entered her body. "I
greatly pity your misfortune," Ju Lai said, "but there is no one to
help you. I also am alone. Why should we not marry? We could build
ourselves a hut, and pass our days in peace. What say you?" "Sir,"
she replied, "you must not make impossible suggestions. I died and
came to life again. How can you speak so lightly? Do me the pleasure
of withdrawing from my presence."

"Well," said the visitor, "he to whom you are speaking is no other
than the Buddha of the West. I came to test your virtue. This place
is not suitable for your devotional exercises; I invite you to come
to Hsiang Shan."

Miao Shan threw herself on her knees and said: "My bodily eyes deceived
me. I never thought that your Majesty would come to a place like
this. Pardon my seeming want of respect. Where is this Hsiang Shan?"

"Hsiang Shan is a very old monastery," Ju Lai replied, "built in
the earliest historical times. It is inhabited by Immortals. It is
situated in the sea, on P'u T'o Island, a dependency of the kingdom
of Annam. There you will be able to reach the highest perfection."

"How far off is this island?" Miao Shan asked. "More than three
thousand _li_," Ju Lai replied. "I fear," she said, "I could not bear
the fatigue of so long a journey." "Calm yourself," he rejoined. "I
have brought with me a magic peach, of a kind not to be found in any
earthly orchard. Once you have eaten it, you will experience neither
hunger nor thirst; old age and death will have no power over you:
you will live for ever."

Miao Shan ate the magic peach, took leave of Ju Lai, and started
on the way to Hsiang Shan. From the clouds the Spirit of the North
Star saw her wending her way painfully toward P'u T'o. He called the
Guardian of the Soil of Hsiang Shan and said to him: "Miao Shan is
on her way to your country; the way is long and difficult. Do you
take the form of a tiger, and carry her to her journey's end."

The _t'u-ti_ transformed himself into a tiger and stationed himself
in the middle of the road along which Miao Shan must pass, giving
vent to ferocious roars.

"I am a poor girl devoid of filial piety," said Miao Shan when she
came up. "I have disobeyed my father's commands; devour me, and make
an end of me."

The tiger then spoke, saying: "I am not a real tiger, but the Guardian
of the Soil of Hsiang Shan. I have received instructions to carry
you there. Get on my back."

"Since you have received these instructions," said the girl, "I will
obey, and when I have attained to perfection I will not forget your
kindness."

The tiger went off like a flash of lightning, and in the twinkling
of an eye Miao Shan found herself at the foot of the rocky slopes of
P'u T'o Island.



Miao Shan attains to Perfection

After nine years in this retreat Miao Shan had reached the acme
of perfection. Ti-tsang Wang then came to Hsiang Shan, and was so
astonished at her virtue that he inquired of the local _t'u-ti_ as to
what had brought about this wonderful result. "With the exception of Ju
Lai, in all the west no one equals her in dignity and perfection. She
is the Queen of the three thousand P'u-sa's and of all the beings on
earth who have skin and blood. We regard her as our sovereign in all
things. Therefore, on the nineteenth day of the eleventh moon we will
enthrone her, that the whole world may profit by her beneficence."

The _t'u-ti_ sent out his invitations for the ceremony. The Dragon-king
of the Western Sea, the Gods of the Five Sacred Mountains, the
Emperor-saints to the number of one hundred and twenty, the thirty-six
officials of the Ministry of Time, the celestial functionaries in
charge of wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, the Three Causes, the
Five Saints, the Eight Immortals, the Ten Kings of the Hells--all
were present on the appointed day. Miao Shan took her seat on the
lotus-throne, and the assembled gods proclaimed her sovereign of
Heaven and earth, and a Buddha. Moreover, they decided that it was
not meet that she should remain alone at Hsiang Shan; so they begged
her to choose a worthy young man and a virtuous damsel to serve her
in the temple.

The _t'u-ti_ was entrusted with the task of finding them. While making
search, he met a young priest named Shan Ts'ai. After the death of
his parents he had become a hermit on Ta-hua Shan, and was still a
novice in the science of perfection.

Miao Shan ordered him to be brought to her. "Who are you?" she asked.

"I am a poor orphan priest of no merit," he replied. "From my earliest
youth I have led the life of a hermit. I have been told that your
power is equalled only by your goodness, so I have ventured to come
to pray you to show me how to attain to perfection."

"My only fear," replied Miao Shan, "is that your desire for perfection
may not be sincere."

"I have now no parents," the priest continued, "and I have come more
than a thousand _li_ to find you. How can I be wanting in sincerity?"

"What special degree of ability have you attained during your course
of perfection?" asked Miao Shan.

"I have no skill," replied Shan Ts'ai, "but I rely for everything
on your great pity, and under your guidance I hope to reach the
required ability."

"Very well," said Miao Shan, "take up your station on the top of
yonder peak, and wait till I find a means of transporting you."


A Ruse

Miao Shan called the _t'u-ti_ and bade him go and beg all the Immortals
to disguise themselves as pirates and to besiege the mountain, waving
torches, and threatening with swords and spears to kill her. "Then
I will seek refuge on the summit, and thence leap over the precipice
to prove Shan Ts'ai's fidelity and affection."

A minute later a horde of brigands of ferocious aspect rushed up
to the temple of Hsiang Shan. Miao Shan cried for help, rushed
up the steep incline, missed her footing, and rolled down into the
ravine. Shan Ts'ai, seeing her fall into the abyss, without hesitation
flung himself after her in order to rescue her. When he reached her,
he asked: "What have you to fear from the robbers? You have nothing
for them to steal; why throw yourself over the precipice, exposing
yourself to certain death?"

Miao Shan saw that he was weeping, and wept too. "I must comply with
the wish of Heaven," she said.


The Transformation of Shan Ts'ai

Shan Ts'ai, inconsolable, prayed Heaven and earth to save his
protectress. Miao Shan said to him: "You should not have risked
your life by throwing yourself over the precipice, I have not yet
transformed you. But you did a brave thing, and I know that you have
a good heart. Now, look down there." "Oh," said he, "if I mistake
not, that is a corpse." "Yes," she replied, "that is your former
body. Now you are transformed you can rise at will and fly in the
air." Shan Ts'ai bowed low to thank his benefactress, who said to him:
"Henceforth you must say your prayers by my side, and not leave me
for a single day."


'Brother and Sister'

With her spiritual sight Miao Shan perceived at the bottom of the
Southern Sea the third son of Lung Wang, who, in carrying out his
father's orders, was cleaving the waves in the form of a carp. While
doing so, he was caught in a fisherman's net, taken to the market
at Yüeh Chou, and offered for sale. Miao Shan at once sent her
faithful Shan Ts'ai, in the guise of a servant, to buy him, giving
him a thousand cash to purchase the fish, which he was to take to
the foot of the rocks at P'u T'o and set free in the sea. The son
of Lung Wang heartily thanked his deliverer, and on his return to
the palace related to his father what had occurred. The King said:
"As a reward, make her a present of a luminous pearl, so that she
may recite her prayers by its light at night-time."

Lung Nü, the daughter of Lung Wang's third son, obtained her
grandfather's permission to take the gift to Miao Shan and beg that
she might be allowed to study the doctrine of the sages under her
guidance. After having proved her sincerity, she was accepted as a
pupil. Shan Ts'ai called her his sister, and Lung Nü reciprocated
by calling him her dear brother. Both lived as brother and sister by
Miao Shan's side.


The King's Punishment

After King Miao Chuang had burned the Nunnery of the White Bird and
killed his daughter, Ch'ieh Lan Buddha presented a petition to Yü Huang
praying that the crime be not allowed to go unpunished. Yü Huang,
justly irritated, ordered P'an Kuan to consult the Register of the
Living and the Dead to see how long this homicidal King had yet to
live. P'an Kuan turned over the pages of his register, and saw that
according to the divine ordinances the King's reign on the throne of
Hsing Lin should last for twenty years, but that this period had not
yet expired. [31] "That which has been decreed is immutable," said
Yü Huang, "but I will punish him by sending him illness." He called
the God of Epidemics, and ordered him to afflict the King's body with
ulcers, of a kind which could not be healed except by remedies to be
given him by his daughter Miao Shan.

The order was promptly executed, and the King could get no rest by day
or by night. His two daughters and their husbands spent their time in
feasting while he tossed about in agony on his sick-bed. In vain the
most famous physicians were called in; the malady only grew worse, and
despair took hold of the patient. He then caused a proclamation to be
made that he would grant the succession to the throne to any person who
would provide him with an effectual remedy to restore him to health.


The Disguised Priest-doctor

Miao Shan had learnt by revelation at Hsiang Shan all that was taking
place at the palace. She assumed the form of a priest-doctor, clothed
herself in a priest's gown, with the regulation headdress and straw
shoes, and attached to her girdle a gourd containing pills and other
medicines. In this apparel she went straight to the palace gate,
read the royal edict posted there, and tore it down. Some members of
the palace guard seized her, and inquired angrily: "Who are you that
you should dare to tear down the royal proclamation?"

"I, a poor priest, am also a doctor," she replied. "I read the edict
posted on the palace gates. The King is inquiring for a doctor who
can heal him. I am a doctor of an old cultured family, and propose
to restore him to health."

"If you are of a cultured family, why did you become a priest?" they
asked. "Would it not have been better to gain your living honestly
in practising your art than to shave your head and go loafing about
the world? Besides, all the highest physicians have tried in vain to
cure the King; do you imagine that you will be more skilful than all
the aged practitioners?"

"Set your minds at ease," she replied. "I have received from my
ancestors the most efficacious remedies, and I guarantee that I
shall restore the King to health," The palace guard then consented
to transmit her petition to the Queen, who informed the King, and in
the end the pretended priest was admitted. Having reached the royal
bed-chamber, he sat still awhile in order to calm himself before
feeling the pulse, and to have complete control of all his faculties
while examining the King. When he felt quite sure of himself, he
approached the King's bed, took the King's hand, felt his pulse,
carefully diagnosed the nature of the illness, and assured himself
that it was easily curable.


Strange Medicine

One serious difficulty, however, presented itself, and that was that
the right medicine was almost impossible to procure. The King showed
his displeasure by saying: "For every illness there is a medical
prescription, and for every prescription a specific medicine; how
can you say that the diagnosis is easy, but that there is no remedy?"

"Your Majesty," replied the priest, "the remedy for your illness is
not to be found in any pharmacy, and no one would agree to sell it."

The King became angry, believed that he was being imposed upon,
and ordered those about him to drive away the priest, who left smiling.

The following night the King saw in a dream an old man who said to
him: "This priest alone can cure your illness, and if you ask him he
himself will give you the right remedy."

The King awoke as soon as these words had been uttered, and begged
the Queen to recall the priest. When the latter had returned, the
King related his dream, and begged the priest to procure for him the
remedy required. "What, after all, is this remedy that I must have
in order to be cured?" he asked.

"There must be the hand and eye of a living person, from which to
compound the ointment which alone can save you," answered the priest.

The King called out in indignation: "This priest is fooling me! Who
would ever give his hand or his eye? Even if anyone would, I could
never have the heart to make use of them."

"Nevertheless," said the priest, "there is no other effective remedy."

"Then where can I procure this remedy?" asked the King.

"Your Majesty must send your ministers, who must observe the Buddhist
rules of abstinence, to Hsiang Shan, where they will be given what
is required."

"Where is Hsiang Shan, and how far from here?"

"About three thousand or more _li_, but I myself will indicate the
route to be followed; in a very short time they will return."

The King, who was suffering terribly, was more contented when he
heard that the journey could be rapidly accomplished. He called his
two ministers, Chao Chên and Liu Ch'in, and instructed them to lose
no time in starting for Hsiang Shan and to observe scrupulously the
Buddhist rules of abstinence. He ordered the Minister of Ceremonies
to detain the priest in the palace until their return.


A Conspiracy that Failed

The two sons-in-law of the King, Ho Fêng and Chao K'uei, who had
already made secret preparations to succeed to the throne as soon as
the King should breathe his last, learned with no little surprise
that the priest had hopes of curing the King's illness, and that
he was waiting in the palace until the saving remedy was brought
to him. Fearing that they might be disappointed in their ambition,
and that after his recovery the King, faithful to his promise,
would give the crown to the priest, they entered into a conspiracy
with an unscrupulous courtier named Ho Li. They were obliged to act
quickly, because the ministers were travelling by forced marches,
and would soon be back. That same night Ho Li was to give to the
King a poisoned drink, composed, he would say, by the priest with
the object of assuaging the King's pain until the return of his
two ministers. Shortly after, an assassin, Su Ta, was to murder the
priest. Thus at one stroke both the King and the priest would meet
their death, and the kingdom would pass to the King's two sons-in-law.

Miao Shan had returned to Hsiang Shan, leaving in the palace the bodily
form of the priest. She saw the two traitors Ho Fêng and Chao K'uei
preparing the poison, and was aware of their wicked intentions. Calling
the spirit Yu I, who was on duty that day, she told him to fly to
the palace and change into a harmless soup the poison about to be
administered to the King and to bind the assassin hand and foot.

At midnight Ho Li, carrying in his hand the poisoned drink, knocked
at the door of the royal apartment, and said to the Queen that the
priest had prepared a soothing potion while awaiting the return of
the ministers. "I come," he said, "to offer it to his Majesty." The
Queen took the bowl in her hands and was about to give it to the King,
when Yu I arrived unannounced. Quick as thought he snatched the bowl
from the Queen and poured the contents on the ground; at the same
moment he knocked over those present in the room, so that they all
rolled on the floor.

At the time this was happening the assassin Su Ta entered the priest's
room, and struck him with his sword. Instantly the assassin, without
knowing how, found himself enwrapped in the priest's robe and thrown
to the ground. He struggled and tried to free himself, but found
that his hands had been rendered useless by some mysterious power,
and that flight was impossible. The spirit Yu I, having fulfilled the
mission entrusted to him, now returned to Hsiang Shan and reported
to Miao Shan.


A Confession and its Results

Next morning, the two sons-in-law of the King heard of the turn things
had taken during the night. The whole palace was in a state of the
greatest confusion.

When he was informed that the priest had been killed, the King called
Ch'u Ting-lieh and ordered him to have the murderer arrested. Su Ta
was put to the torture and confessed all that he knew. Together with
Ho Li he was condemned to be cut into a thousand pieces.

The two sons-in-law were seized and ordered to instant execution,
and it was only on the Queen's intercession that their wives were
spared. The infuriated King, however, ordered that his two daughters
should be imprisoned in the palace.


The Gruesome Remedy

Meantime Chao Chên and Liu Ch'in had reached Hsiang Shan. When they
were brought to Miao Shan the ministers took out the King's letter and
read it to her. "I, Miao Chuang, King of Hsing Lin, have learned that
there dwells at Hsiang Shan an Immortal whose power and compassion
have no equal in the whole world. I have passed my fiftieth year, and
am afflicted with ulcers that all remedies have failed to cure. To-day
a priest has assured me that at Hsiang Shan I can obtain the hand and
eye of a living person, with which he will prepare an ointment able
to restore me to my usual state of health. Relying upon his word
and upon the goodness of the Immortal to whom he has directed me,
I venture to beg that those two parts of a living body necessary to
heal my ulcers be sent to me. I assure you of my everlasting gratitude,
fully confident that my request will not be refused."

The next morning Miao Shan bade the ministers take a knife and cut
off her left hand and gouge out her left eye. Liu Ch'in took the
knife offered him, but did not dare to obey the order. "Be quick,"
urged the Immortal; "you have been commanded to return as soon as
possible; why do you hesitate as if you were a young girl?" Liu
Ch'in was forced to proceed. He plunged in the knife, and the red
blood flooded the ground, spreading an odour like sweet incense. The
hand and eye were placed on a golden plate, and, having paid their
grateful respects to the Immortal, the envoys hastened to return.

When they had left, Miao Shan, who had transformed herself in order to
allow the envoys to remove her hand and eye, told Shan Ts'ai that she
was now going to prepare the ointment necessary for the cure of the
King. "Should the Queen," she added, "send for another eye and hand,
I will transform myself again, and you can give them to her." No sooner
had she finished speaking than she mounted a cloud and disappeared
in space. The two ministers reached the palace and presented to the
Queen the gruesome remedy which they had brought from the temple. She,
overcome with gratitude and emotion, wept copiously. "What Immortal,"
she asked, "can have been so charitable as to sacrifice a hand and eye
for the King's benefit?" Then suddenly her tears gushed forth with
redoubled vigour, and she uttered a great cry, for she recognized
the hand of her daughter by a black scar which was on it.


Half-measures

"Who else, in fact, but his child," she continued amid her sobs,
"could have had the courage to give her hand to save her father's
life?" "What are you saying?" said the King. "In the world there are
many hands like this." While they thus reasoned, the priest entered
the King's apartment. "This great Immortal has long devoted herself
to the attainment of perfection," he said. "Those she has healed
are innumerable. Give me the hand and eye." He took them and shortly
produced an ointment which, he told the King, was to be applied to his
left side. No sooner had it touched his skin than the pain on his left
side disappeared as if by magic; no sign of ulcers was to be seen on
that side, but his right side remained swollen and painful as before.

"Why is it," asked the King, "that this remedy, which is so efficacious
for the left side, should not be applied to the right?" "Because,"
replied the priest, "the left hand and eye of the saint cures only
the left side. If you wish to be completely cured, you must send
your officers to obtain the right eye and right hand also." The King
accordingly dispatched his envoys anew with a letter of thanks, and
begging as a further favour that the cure should be completed by the
healing also of his right side.


The King Cured

On the arrival of the envoys Shan Ts'ai met them in the mutilated form
of Miao Shan, and he bade them cut off his right hand, pluck out his
right eye, and put them on a plate. At the sight of the four bleeding
wounds Liu Ch'in could not refrain from calling out indignantly:
"This priest is a wicked man, thus to make a martyr of a woman in
order to obtain the succession!"

Having thus spoken, he left with his companion for the kingdom of
Hsing Lin. On their return the King was overwhelmed with joy. The
priest quickly prepared the ointment, and the King, without delay,
applied it to his right side. At once the ulcers disappeared like the
darkness of night before the rising sun. The whole Court congratulated
the King and eulogized the priest. The King conferred upon the latter
the title Priest of the Brilliant Eye. He fell on his face to return
thanks, and added: "I, a poor priest, have left the world, and have
only one wish, namely, that your Majesty should govern your subjects
with justice and sympathy and that all the officials of the realm
should prove themselves men of integrity. As for me, I am used to
roaming about. I have no desire for any royal estate. My happiness
exceeds all earthly joys."

Having thus spoken, the priest waved the sleeve of his cloak, a cloud
descended from Heaven, and seating himself upon it he disappeared
in the sky. From the cloud a note containing the following words was
seen to fall: "I am one of the Teachers of the West. I came to cure
the King's illness, and so to glorify the True Doctrine."



The King's Daughter

All who witnessed this miracle exclaimed with one voice: "This priest
is the Living Buddha, who is going back to Heaven!" The note was taken
to King Miao Chuang, who exclaimed: "Who am I that I should deserve
that one of the rulers of Heaven should deign to descend and cure me
by the sacrifice of hands and eyes?"

"What was the face of the saintly person like who gave you the
remedy?" he then asked Chao Chên.

"It was like unto that of your deceased daughter, Miao Shan,"
he replied.

"When you removed her hands and eyes did she seem to suffer?"

"I saw a great flow of blood, and my heart failed, but the face of
the victim seemed radiant with happiness."

"This certainly must be my daughter Miao Shan, who has attained to
perfection," said the King. "Who but she would have given hands
and eyes? Purify yourselves and observe the rules of abstinence,
and go quickly to Hsiang Shan to return thanks to the saint for this
inestimable favour. I myself will ere long make a pilgrimage thither
to return thanks in person."


The King and Queen taken Prisoners

Three years later the King and Queen, with the grandees of their
Court, set out to visit Hsiang Shan, but on the way the monarchs were
captured by the Green Lion, or God of Fire, and the White Elephant,
or Spirit of the Water, the two guardians of the Temple of Buddha,
who transported them to a dark cavern in the mountains. A terrific
battle then took place between the evil spirits on the one side and
some hosts of heavenly genii, who had been summoned to the rescue,
on the other. While its issue was still uncertain, reinforcements
under the Red Child Devil, who could resist fire, and the Dragon-king
of the Eastern Sea, who could subdue water, finally routed the enemy,
and the prisoners were released.


The King's Repentance

The King and Queen now resumed their pilgrimage, and Miao Shan
instructed Shan Ts'ai to receive the monarchs when they arrived
to offer incense. She herself took up her place on the altar, her
eyes torn out, her hands cut off, and her wrists all dripping with
blood. The King recognized his daughter, and bitterly reproached
himself; the Queen fell swooning at her feet. Miao Shan then spoke and
tried to comfort them. She told them of all that she had experienced
since the day when she had been executed, and how she had attained
to immortal perfection. She then went on: "In order to punish you
for having caused the deaths of all those who perished in the wars
preceding your accession to the throne, and also to avenge the burning
of the Nunnery of the White Bird, Yü Huang afflicted you with those
grievous ulcers. It was then that I changed myself into a priest in
order to heal you, and gave my eyes and hands, with which I prepared
the ointment that cured you. It was I, moreover, who procured your
liberty from Buddha when you were imprisoned in the cave by the Green
Lion and the White Elephant."


Sackcloth and Ashes

At these words the King threw himself with his face on the ground,
offered incense, worshipped Heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon,
saying with a voice broken by sobs: "I committed a great crime in
killing my daughter, who has sacrificed her eyes and hands in order
to cure my sickness."

No sooner were these words uttered than Miao Shan reassumed her
normal form, and, descending from the altar, approached her parents
and sisters. Her body had again its original completeness; and in the
presence of its perfect beauty, and at finding themselves reunited
as one family, all wept for joy.

"Well," said Miao Shan to her father, "will you now force me to marry
and prevent my devoting myself to the attainment of perfection?"

"Speak no more of that," replied the King. "I was in the wrong. If you
had not reached perfection, I should not now be alive. I have made up
my mind to exchange my sceptre for the pursuit of the perfect life,
which I wish to lead henceforth together with you."


The King renounces the Throne

Then, in the presence of all, he addressed his Grand Minister Chao
Chên, saying: "Your devotion to the service of the State has rendered
you worthy to wear the crown: I surrender it to you." The Court
proclaimed Chao Chên King of Hsing Lin, bade farewell to Miao Chuang,
and set out for their kingdom accompanied by their new sovereign.


Pardon of the Green Lion and the White Elephant

Buddha had summoned the White Elephant and the Green Lion, and
was on the point of sentencing them to eternal damnation when the
compassionate Miao Shan interceded for them. "Certainly you deserve
no forgiveness," he said, "but I cannot refuse a request made by
Miao Shan, whose clemency is without limit. I give you over to her,
to serve and obey her in everything. Follow her."


Miao Shan becomes a Buddha

The guardian spirit on duty that day then announced the arrival of a
messenger from Yü Huang. It was T'ai-po Chin-hsing, who was the bearer
of a divine decree, which he handed to Miao Shan. It read as follows:
"I, the august Emperor, make known to you this decree: Miao Chuang,
King of Hsing Lin, forgetful alike of Heaven and Hell, the six virtues,
and metempsychosis, has led a blameworthy life; but your nine years
of penitence, the filial piety which caused you to sacrifice your own
body to effect his cure, in short, all your virtues, have redeemed
his faults. Your eyes can see and your ears can hear all the good
and bad deeds and words of men. You are the object of my especial
regard. Therefore I make proclamation of this decree of canonization.

"Miao Shan will have the title of Very Merciful and Very Compassionate
P'u-sa, Saviour of the Afflicted, Miraculous and Always Helpful
Protectress of Mortals. On your lofty precious lotus-flower throne,
you will be the Sovereign of the Southern Seas and of P'u T'o Isle.

"Your two sisters, hitherto tainted with earthly pleasures, will
gradually progress till they reach true perfection.

"Miao Ch'ing will have the title of Very Virtuous P'u-sa, the
Completely Beautiful, Rider of the Green Lion.

"Miao Yin will be honoured with the title of Very Virtuous and
Completely Resplendent P'u-sa, Rider of the White Elephant.

"King Miao Chuang is raised to the dignity of Virtuous Conquering
P'u-sa, Surveyor of Mortals.

"Queen Po Ya receives the title of P'u-sa of Ten Thousand Virtues,
Surveyor of Famous Women.

"Shan Ts'ai has bestowed upon him the title of Golden Youth.

"Lung Nü has the title of Jade Maiden.

"During all time incense is to be burned before all the members of
this canonized group."



CHAPTER XI

The Eight Immortals


Pa Hsien

Either singly or in groups the Eight Immortals, Pa Hsien, of the Taoist
religion are one of the most popular subjects of representation in
China; their portraits are to be seen everywhere--on porcelain vases,
teapots, teacups, fans, scrolls, embroidery, etc. Images of them are
made in porcelain, earthenware, roots, wood, metals. The term 'Eight
Immortals' is figuratively used for happiness. The number eight has
become lucky in association with this tradition, and persons or things
eight in number are graced accordingly. Thus we read of reverence shown
to the 'Eight Genii Table' (_Pa Hsien Cho_), the 'Eight Genii Bridge'
(_Pa Hsien Ch'iao_), 'Eight Genii Vermicelli' (_Pa Hsien Mien_), the
'Eight Genii of the Wine-cup' (_Tin Chung Pa Hsien_)--wine-bibbers of
the T'ang dynasty celebrated by Tu Fu, the poet. They are favourite
subjects of romance, and special objects of adoration. In them we see
"the embodiment of the ideas of perfect but imaginary happiness which
possess the minds of the Chinese people." Three of them (Chung-li
Ch'üan, Chang Kuo, and Lü Yen) were historical personages; the others
are mentioned only in fables or romances. They represent all kinds
of people--old, young, male, female, civil, military, rich, poor,
afflicted, cultured, noble. They are also representative of early,
middle, and later historical periods.

The legend of the Eight Immortals is certainly not older than the time
of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), and is probably to be assigned
to that of the Yüan dynasty (1280-1368). But some, if not all, of
the group seem to have been previously celebrated as Immortals in the
Taoist legends. Their biographies are usually arranged in the order
of their official eminence or seniority in age. Here I follow that
adopted in _Hsiu hsiang Pa Hsien tung yu chi_ [32] in which they are
described in the order in which they became Immortals.


Li T'ieh-kuai

Li T'ieh-kuai, depicted always with his crutch and gourd full of
magic medicines, was of the family name of Li, his own name being
Li Yüan (Hs'üan, now read Yüan). He is also known as K'ung-mu. Hsi
Wang Mu cured him of an ulcer on the leg and taught him the art of
becoming immortal. He was canonized as Rector of the East. He is
said to have been of commanding stature and dignified mien, devoting
himself solely to the study of Taoist lore. Hsi Wang Mu made him a
present of an iron crutch, and sent him to the capital to teach the
doctrine of immortality to Han Chung-li.

He is also identified with Li Ning-yang, to whom Lao Tzu descended
from Heaven in order to instruct him in the wisdom of the gods. Soon
after he had completed his course of instruction his soul left his
body to go on a visit to Hua Shan. Some say he was summoned by Lao
Tzu, others that Lao Tzu engaged him as escort to the countries of
Hsi Yü. He left his disciple Lang Ling in charge of his body, saying
that if he did not return within seven days he was to have the body
cremated. Unfortunately, when only six days had elapsed the disciple
was called away to the death-bed of his mother. In order to be able
to leave at once he cremated the body forthwith, and when the soul
returned it found only a heap of ashes. Some say the body was not
cremated, but only became devitalized through neglect or through
being uninhabited for so long a time. The object of the setting of
the watch was not only to prevent injury to or theft of the body,
but also to prevent any other soul from taking up its abode in it.

In a forest near by a beggar had just died of hunger. Finding this
corpse untenanted, the wandering spirit entered it through the
temples, and made off. When he found that his head was long and
pointed, his face black, his beard and hair woolly and dishevelled,
his eyes of gigantic size, and one of his legs lame, he wished to
get out of this vile body; but Lao Tzu advised him not to make the
attempt and gave him a gold band to keep his hair in order, and an
iron crutch to help his lame leg. On lifting his hand to his eyes,
he found they were as large as buckles. That is why he was called Li
K'ung-mu, 'Li Hollow Eyes.' Popularly he is known as Li T'ieh-kuai,
'Li with the Iron Crutch.' No precise period seems to be assigned
to his career on earth, though one tradition places him in the Yüan
dynasty. Another account says that he was changed into a dragon,
and in that form ascended to Heaven.

Elsewhere it is related that T'ieh-kuai, after entering the body of
the lame beggar, benevolently proceeded to revive the mother of Yang,
his negligent disciple. Leaning on his iron staff and carrying a gourd
of medicines on his back he went to Yang's house, where preparations
were being made for the funeral. The contents of the gourd, poured
into the mouth, revived the dead woman. He then made himself known,
and, giving Yang another pill, vanished in a gust of wind. Two hundred
years later he effected the immortalization of his disciple.

During his peregrinations on earth he would hang a bottle on the
wall at night and jump into it, emerging on the following morning. He
frequently returned to earth, and at times tried to bring about the
transmigration of others.

An example is the case of Ch'ao Tu, the watchman. T'ieh-kuai walked
into a fiery furnace and bade Ch'ao follow. The latter, being afraid
of imitating an act evidently associated with the supernatural world
of evil spirits, refused to do so. T'ieh-kuai then told Ch'ao to step
on to a leaf floating on the surface of the river, saying that it was
a boat that would bear him across safely. Again the watchman refused,
whereupon T'ieh-kuai, remarking that the cares of this world were
evidently too weighty for him to be able to ascend to immortality,
stepped on to the leaf himself and vanished.


Chung-li Ch'üan

Regarding the origin and life of this Immortal several different
accounts are given. One states that his family name was Chung-li,
and that he lived in the Han dynasty, being therefore called Han
Chung-li. His cognomen was Ch'üan, his literary appellation Chi Tao,
and his pseudonyms Ho-ho Tzu and Wang-yang Tzu; his style Yün-fang.

He was born in the district of Hsien-yang Hsien (a sub-prefecture of
the ancient capital Hsi-an Fu) in Shensi. He became Marshal of the
Empire in the cyclic year 2496. In his old age he became a hermit
on Yang-chio Shan, thirty _li_ north-east of I-ch'êng Hsien in the
prefecture of P'ing-yang Fu in Shansi. He is referred to by the title
of King-emperor of the True Active Principle.

Another account describes Chung-li Ch'üan as merely a vice-marshal
in the service of Duke Chou Hsiao. He was defeated in battle, and
escaped to Chung-nan Shan, where he met the Five Heroes, the Flowers
of the East, who instructed him in the doctrine of immortality. At
the end of the T'ang dynasty Han Chung-li taught this same science of
immortality to Lü Tung-pin (see p. 297), and took the pompous title
of the Only Independent One Under Heaven.

Other versions state that Han Chung-li is not the name of a person,
but of a country; that he was a Taoist priest Chung Li-tzu; and that
he was a beggar, Chung-li by name, who gave to one Lao Chih a pill of
immortality. No sooner had the latter swallowed it than he went mad,
left his wife, and ascended to Heaven.

During a great famine he transmuted copper and pewter into silver
by amalgamating them with some mysterious drug. This treasure he
distributed among the poor, and thousands of lives were thus saved.

One day, while he was meditating, the stone wall of his dwelling in the
mountains was rent asunder, and a jade casket exposed to view. This was
found to contain secret information as to how to become an Immortal.

When he had followed these instructions for some time, his room was
filled with many-coloured clouds, music was heard, and a celestial
stork came and bore him away on its back to the regions of immortality.

He is sometimes represented holding his feather-fan, Yü-mao Shan;
at other times the peach of immortality. Since his admission to
the ranks of the gods, he has appeared on earth at various times as
the messenger of Heaven. On one of these occasions he met Lü Yen,
as narrated on p. 297.



Lan Ts'ai-ho

Lan Ts'ai-ho is variously stated to have been a woman and an
hermaphrodite. She is the strolling singer or mountebank of the
Immortals. Usually she plays a flute or a pair of cymbals. Her origin
is unknown, but her personal name is said to have been Yang Su,
and her career is assigned to the period of the T'ang dynasty. She
wandered abroad clad in a tattered blue gown held by a black wooden
belt three inches wide, with one foot shoeless and the other shod,
wearing in summer an undergarment of wadded material, and in winter
sleeping on the snow, her breath rising in a brilliant cloud like
the steam from a boiling cauldron. In this guise she earned her
livelihood by singing in the streets, keeping time with a wand three
feet long. Though taken for a lunatic, the doggerel verse she sang
disproved the popular slanders. It denounced this fleeting life and
its delusive pleasures. When given money, she either strung it on
a cord and waved it to the time of her song or scattered it on the
ground for the poor to pick up.

One day she was found to have become intoxicated in an inn at Fêng-yang
Fu in Anhui, and while in that state disappeared on a cloud, having
thrown down to earth her shoe, robe, belt, and castanets.

According to popular belief, however, only one of the Eight Immortals,
namely, Ho Hsien-ku, was a woman, Lan Ts'ai-ho being represented as a
young person of about sixteen, bearing a basket of fruit. According
to the _Hsiu hsiang Pa Hsien tung yu chi_, he was 'the Red-footed
Great Genius,' Ch'ih-chiao Ta-hsien incarnate. Though he was a man,
adds the writer, he could not understand how to be a man (which is
perhaps the reason why he has been supposed to be a woman).



Chang Kuo

The period assigned to Chang Kuo is the middle or close of the seventh
to the middle of the eighth century A.D. He lived as a hermit on
Chung-t'iao Shan, in the prefecture of P'ing-yang Fu in Shansi. The
Emperors T'ai Tsung and Kao Tsung of the T'ang dynasty frequently
invited him to Court, but he persistently refused to go. At last,
pressed once more by the Empress Wu (A.D. 684-705), he consented
to leave his retreat, but was struck down by death at the gate of
the Temple of the Jealous Woman. His body began to decay and to be
eaten by worms, when lo! he was seen again, alive and well, on the
mountains of Hêng Chou in P'ing-yang Fu. He rode on a white mule,
which carried him thousands of miles in a day, and which, when the
journey was finished, he folded up like a sheet of paper and put away
in his wallet. When he again required its services, he had only to
spurt water upon the packet from his mouth and the animal at once
assumed its proper shape. At all times he performed wonderful feats
of necromancy, and declared that he had been Grand Minister to the
Emperor Yao (2357-2255 B.C.) during a previous existence.

In the twenty-third year (A.D. 735) of the reign-period K'ai Yüan
of the Emperor Hsüan Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, he was called to
Lo-yang in Honan, and elected Chief of the Imperial Academy, with
the honourable title of Very Perspicacious Teacher.

It was just at this time that the famous Taoist Yeh Fa-shan, thanks
to his skill in necromancy, was in great favour at Court. The Emperor
asked him who this Chang Kuo Lao (he usually has the epithet Lao,
'old,' added to his name) was. "I know," replied the magician;
"but if I were to tell your Majesty I should fall dead at your feet,
so I dare not speak unless your Majesty will promise that you will
go with bare feet and bare head to ask Chang Kuo to forgive you, in
which case I should immediately revive." Hsüan Tsung having promised,
Fa-shan then said: "Chang Kuo is a white spiritual bat which came out
of primeval chaos." No sooner had he spoken than he dropped dead at
the Emperor's feet.

Hsüan Tsung, with bare head and feet, went to Chang Kuo as he had
promised, and begged forgiveness for his indiscretion. The latter then
sprinkled water on Fa-shan's face and he revived. Soon after Chang fell
sick and returned to die in the Hêng Chou Mountains during the period
A.D. 742-746. When his disciples opened his tomb, they found it empty.

He is usually seen mounted on his white mule, sometimes facing its
head, sometimes its tail. He carries a phoenix-feather or a peach
of immortality.

At his interviews with the Emperor Ming Huang in A.D. 723 (when he
was alive still) Chang Kuo "entertained the Emperor with a variety of
magical tricks, such as rendering himself invisible, drinking off a
cup of aconite, and felling birds or flowers by pointing at them. He
refused the hand of an imperial princess, and also declined to have
his portrait placed in the Hall of Worthies."

A picture of Chang Kuo sitting on a donkey and offering a descendant
to the newly married couple is often found in the nuptial chamber. It
seems somewhat incongruous that an old ascetic should be associated
with matrimonial happiness and the granting of offspring, but the
explanation may possibly be connected with his performance of wonderful
feats of necromancy, though he is said not to have given encouragement
to others in these things during his lifetime.



Ho Hsien Ku

A maiden holding in her hand a magic lotus-blossom, the flower of
open-heartedness, or the peach of immortality given her by Lü Tung-pin
in the mountain-gorge as a symbol of identity, playing at times the
_shêng_ or reed-organ, or drinking wine--this is the picture the
Chinese paint of the Immortal Ho Hsien Ku.

She was the daughter of Ho T'ai, a native of Tsêng-ch'êng Hsien in
Kuangtung. Others say her father was a shopkeeper at Ling-ling in
Hunan. She lived in the time of the usurping empress Wu (A.D. 684-705)
of the T'ang dynasty. At her birth six hairs were found growing on
the crown of her head, and the account says she never had any more,
though the pictures represent her with a full head of hair. She
elected to live on Yün-mu Ling, twenty _li_ west of Tsêng-ch'êng
Hsien. On that mountain was found a stone called _yün-mu shih_,
'mother-of-pearl.' In a dream she saw a spirit who ordered her to
powder and eat one of these stones, by doing which she could acquire
both agility and immortality. She complied with this injunction, and
also vowed herself to a life of virginity. Her days were thenceforth
passed in floating from one peak to another, bringing home at night
to her mother the fruits she collected on the mountain. She gradually
found that she had no need to eat in order to live. Her fame having
reached the ears of the Empress, she was invited to Court, but while
journeying thither suddenly disappeared from mortal view and became
an Immortal. She is said to have been seen again in A.D. 750 floating
upon a cloud of many colours at the temple of Ma Ku, the famous female
Taoist magician, and again, some years later, in the city of Canton.

She is represented as an extremely beautiful maiden, and is remarkable
as occupying so prominent a position in a cult in which no system of
female asceticism is developed.


Lü Tung-pin

Lü Tung-pin's family name was Lü; his personal name Tung-pin; also Yen;
and his pseudonym Shun Yang Tzu. He was born in A.D. 798 at Yung-lo
Hsien, in the prefecture of Ho-chung Fu in Shansi, a hundred and twenty
_li_ south-east of the present sub-prefecture of Yung-chi Hsien (P'u
Chou). He came of an official family, his grandfather having been
President of the Ministry of Ceremonies, and his father Prefect of
Hai Chou. He was 5 feet 2 inches in height, and at twenty was still
unmarried. At this time he made a journey to Lu Shan in Kiangsi,
where he met the Fire-dragon, who presented him with a magic sword,
which enabled him at will to hide himself in the heavens.

During his visit to the capital, Ch'ang-an in Shensi, he met
the Immortal Han Chung-li, who instructed him in the mysteries of
alchemy and the elixir of life. When he revealed himself as Yün-fang
Hsien-shêng, Lü Yen expressed an ardent desire to aid in converting
mankind to the true doctrine, but was first exposed to a series of
ten temptations. These being successfully overcome, he was invested
with supernatural power and magic weapons, with which he traversed
the Empire, slaying dragons and ridding the earth of divers kinds
of evils, during a period of upward of four hundred years. Another
version says that Han Chung-li was in an inn, heating a jug of
rice-wine. Here Lü met him, and going to sleep dreamed that he
was promoted to a very high office and was exceptionally favoured
by fortune in every way. This had gone on for fifty years when
unexpectedly a serious fault caused him to be condemned to exile,
and his family was exterminated. Alone in the world, he was sighing
bitterly, when he awoke with a start. All had taken place in so short
a space of time that Han Chung-li's wine was not yet hot. This is the
incident referred to in Chinese literature in the phrase 'rice-wine
dream.' Convinced of the hollowness of worldly dignities, he followed
Han Chung-li to the Ho Ling Mountains at Chung-nan in Shensi, where
he was initiated into the divine mysteries, and became an Immortal.

In A.D. 1115 the Emperor Hui Tsung conferred on him the title of Hero
of Marvellous Wisdom; and later he was proclaimed King-emperor and
Strong Protector.

There are various versions of the legend of Lü Tung-pin. One of these
adds that in order to fulfil his promise made to Chung-li to do what
he could to aid in the work of converting his fellow-creatures to the
true doctrine, he went to Yüch Yang in the guise of an oil-seller,
intending to immortalize all those who did not ask for additional
weight to the quantity of oil purchased. During a whole year he met
only selfish and extortionate customers, with the exception of one
old lady who alone did not ask for more than was her due. So he went
to her house, and seeing a well in the courtyard threw a few grains
of rice into it. The water miraculously turned into wine, from the
sale of which the dame amassed great wealth.

He was very skilful in fencing, and is always represented with his
magic Excalibur named Chan-yao Kuai, 'Devil-slaying Sabre,' and in
one hand holds a fly-whisk, Yün-chou, or 'Cloud-sweeper,' a symbol
common in Taoism of being able to fly at will through the air and to
walk on the clouds of Heaven.

Like Kuan Kung, he is shown bearing in his arms a male
child--indicating a promise of numerous progeny, including _literati_
and famous officials. Consequently he is one of the spiritual beings
honoured by the _literati_.


Han Hsiang Tzu

Han Hsiang Tzu, who is depicted with a bouquet of flowers or a basket
of peaches of immortality, is stated to have been a grand-nephew of
Han Yü (A.D. 768-824), the great statesman, philosopher, and poet of
the T'ang dynasty, and an ardent votary of transcendental study. His
own name was Ch'ing Fu. The child was entrusted to his uncle to
be educated and prepared for the public examinations. He excelled
his teacher in intelligence and the performance of wonderful feats,
such as the production from a little earth in a flower-pot of some
marvellous flowering plants, on the leaves of which were written in
letters of gold some verses to this effect:


    The clouds hide Mount Ch'in Ling.
      Where is your abode?
    The snow is deep on Lan Kuan;
      Your horse refuses to advance.


"What is the meaning of these verses?" asked Han Yü. "You will see,"
replied Han Hsiang Tzu.

Some time afterward Han Yü was sent in disgrace to the prefecture of
Ch'ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung. When he reached the foot of Lan Kuan the
snow was so deep that he could not go on. Han Hsiang Tzu appeared, and,
sweeping away the snow, made a path for him. Han Yü then understood
the prophecy in his pupil's verses.

When Han Hsiang Tzu was leaving his uncle, he gave him the following
in verse:

Many indeed are the eminent men who have served their country, but
which of them surpasses you in his knowledge of literature? When
you have reached a high position, you will be buried in a damp and
foggy land.

Han Yü also gave his pupil a farewell verse:

How many here below allow themselves to be inebriated by the love
of honours and pelf! Alone and watchful you persevere in the right
path. But a time will come when, taking your flight to the sky,
you will open in the ethereal blue a luminous roadway.

Han Yü was depressed at the thought of the damp climate of his place
of exile. "I fear there is no doubt," he said, "that I shall die
without seeing my family again."

Han Hsiang Tzu consoled him, gave him a prescription, and said: "Not
only will you return in perfect health to the bosom of your family,
but you will be reinstated in your former offices." All this took
place exactly as he had predicted.

Another account states that he became the disciple of Lü Tung-pin, and,
having been carried up to the supernatural peach-tree of the genii,
fell from its branches, but during his descent attained to the state
of immortality. Still another version says that he was killed by the
fall, was transformed, and then underwent the various experiences
with Han Yü already related.


Ts'ao Kuo-chiu

Ts'ao Kuo-chiu was connected with the imperial family of the Sungs,
and is shown with the tablet of admission to Court in his hand. He
became one of the Eight Immortals because the other seven, who
occupied seven of the eight grottos of the Upper Spheres, wished to
see the eighth inhabited, and nominated him because "his disposition
resembled that of a genie." The legend relates that the Empress
Ts'ao, wife of the Emperor Jên Tsung (A.D. 1023-64), had two younger
brothers. The elder of the two, Ching-hsiu, did not concern himself
with the affairs of State; the younger, Ching-chih, was notorious for
his misbehaviour. In spite of all warnings he refused to reform, and
being at last guilty of homicide was condemned to death. His brother,
ashamed at what had occurred, went and hid in the mountains, where he
clothed his head and body with wild plants, resolved to lead the life
of a hermit. One day Han Chung-li and Lü Tung-pin found him in his
retreat, and asked him what he was doing. "I am engaged in studying
the Way," he replied. "What way, and where is it?" they asked. He
pointed to the sky. "Where is the sky?" they went on. He pointed to
his heart. The two visitors smiled and said: "The heart is the sky,
and the sky is the Way; you understand the origin of things." They
then gave him a recipe for perfection, to enable him to take his
place among the Perfect Ones. In a few days only he had reached this
much-sought-after condition.

In another version we find fuller details concerning this
Immortal. A graduate named Yüan Wên-chêng of Ch'ao-yang Hsien, in
the sub-prefecture of Ch'ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung, was travelling with
his wife to take his examinations at the capital. Ts'ao Ching-chih,
the younger brother of the Empress, saw the lady, and was struck with
her beauty. In order to gratify his passion he invited the graduate
and his young wife to the palace, where he strangled the husband and
tried to force the wife to cohabit with him. She refused obstinately,
and as a last resort he had her imprisoned in a noisome dungeon. The
soul of the graduate appeared to the imperial Censor Pao Lao-yeh,
and begged him to exact vengeance for the execrable crime. The
elder brother, Ching-hsiu, seeing the case put in the hands of the
upright Pao Lao-yeh, and knowing his brother to be guilty of homicide,
advised him to put the woman to death, in order to cut off all sources
of information and so to prevent further proceedings. The young
voluptuary thereupon caused the woman to be thrown down a deep well,
but the star T'ai-po Chin-hsing, in the form of an old man, drew her
out again. While making her escape, she met on the road an official
procession which she mistook for that of Pao Lao-yeh, and, going up to
the sedan chair, made her accusation. This official was no other than
the elder brother of the murderer. Ching-hsiu, terrified, dared not
refuse to accept the charge, but on the pretext that the woman had
not placed herself respectfully by the side of the official chair,
and thus had not left a way clear for the passage of his retinue, he
had her beaten with iron-spiked whips, and she was cast away for dead
in a neighbouring lane. This time also she revived, and ran to inform
Pao Lao-yeh. The latter immediately had Ts'ao Ching-hsiu arrested,
cangued, and fettered. Without loss of time he wrote an invitation to
the second brother, Ts'ao Ching-chih, and on his arrival confronted him
with the graduate's wife, who accused him to his face. Pao Lao-yeh had
him put in a pit, and remained deaf to all entreaties of the Emperor
and Empress on his behalf. A few days later the murderer was taken to
the place of execution, and his head rolled in the dust. The problem
now was how to get Ts'ao Ching-hsiu out of the hands of the terrible
Censor. The Emperor Jên Tsung, to please the Empress, had a universal
amnesty proclaimed throughout the Empire, under which all prisoners
were set free. On receipt of this edict, Pao Lao-yeh liberated Ts'ao
Ching-hsiu from the cangue, and allowed him to go free. As one risen
from the dead, he gave himself up to the practice of perfection,
became a hermit, and, through the instruction of the Perfect Ones,
became one of the Eight Immortals.


Pa Hsien Kuo Hai

The phrase _Pa Hsien kuo hai_, 'the Eight Immortals crossing the sea,'
refers to the legend of an expedition made by these deities. Their
object was to behold the wondrous things of the sea not to be found
in the celestial sphere.

The usual mode of celestial locomotion--by taking a seat on a
cloud--was discarded at the suggestion of Lü Yen who recommended that
they should show the infinite variety of their talents by placing
things on the surface of the sea and stepping on them.

Li T'ieh-kuai threw down his crutch, and scudded rapidly over the
waves. Chung-li Ch'üan used his feather-fan, Chang Kuo his paper
mule, Lü Tung-pin his sword, Han Hsiang Tzu his flower-basket, Ho
Hsien Ku her lotus-flower, Lan Ts'ai-ho his musical instrument, and
Ts'ao Kuo-chiu his tablet of admission to Court. The popular pictures
often represent most of these articles changed into various kinds
of sea-monsters. The musical instrument was noticed by the son of
the Dragon-king of the Eastern Sea. This avaricious prince conceived
the idea of stealing the instrument and imprisoning its owner. The
Immortals thereupon declared war, the details of which are described at
length by the Chinese writers, the outcome being that the Dragon-king
was utterly defeated. After this the Eight Immortals continued their
submarine exploits for an indefinite time, encountering numberless
adventures; but here the author travels far into the fertile region
of romance, beyond the frontiers of our present province.



CHAPTER XII

The Guardian of the Gate of Heaven


Li, the Pagoda-bearer

In Buddhist temples there is to be seen a richly attired figure of
a man holding in his hand a model of a pagoda. He is Li, the Prime
Minister of Heaven and father of No-cha.

He was a general under the tyrant Chou and commander of Ch'ên-t'ang
Kuan at the time when the bloody war was being waged which resulted
in the extinction of the Yin dynasty.

No-cha is one of the most frequently mentioned heroes in Chinese
romance; he is represented in one account as being Yü Huang's
shield-bearer, sixty feet in height, his three heads with nine
eyes crowned by a golden wheel, his eight hands each holding a
magic weapon, and his mouth vomiting blue clouds. At the sound of
his Voice, we are told, the heavens shook and the foundations of the
earth trembled. His duty was to bring into submission all the demons
which desolated the world.

His birth was in this wise. Li Ching's wife, Yin Shih, bore him three
sons, the eldest Chin-cha, the second Mu-cha, and the third No-cha,
generally known as 'the Third Prince.'

Yin Shih dreamed one night that a Taoist priest entered her room. She
indignantly exclaimed: "How dare you come into my room in this
indiscreet manner?" The priest replied: "Woman, receive the child of
the unicorn!" Before she could reply the Taoist pushed an object to
her bosom.

Yin Shih awoke in a fright, a cold sweat all over her body. Having
awakened her husband, she told him what she had dreamed. At that moment
she was seized with the pains of childbirth. Li Ching withdrew to an
adjoining room, uneasy at what seemed to be inauspicious omens. A
little later two servants ran to him, crying out: "Your wife has
given birth to a monstrous freak!"


An Avatar of the Intelligent Pearl

Li Ching seized his sword and went into his wife's room, which he found
filled with a red light exhaling a most extraordinary odour. A ball
of flesh was rolling on the floor like a wheel; with a blow of his
sword he cut it open, and a babe emerged, surrounded by a halo of red
light. Its face was very white, a gold bracelet was on its right wrist,
and it wore a pair of red silk trousers, from which proceeded rays
of dazzling golden light. The bracelet was 'the horizon of Heaven and
earth,' and the two precious objects belonged to the cave Chin-kuang
Tung of T'ai-i Chên-jên, the priest who had bestowed them upon him
when he appeared to his mother during her sleep. The child itself
was an avatar of Ling Chu-tzu, 'the Intelligent Pearl.'

On the morrow T'ai-i Chên-jên returned and asked Li Ching's permission
to see the new-born babe. "He shall be called No-cha," he said,
"and will become my disciple."


A Precocious Youth

At seven years of age No-cha was already six feet in height. One day
he asked his mother if he might go for a walk outside the town. His
mother granted him permission on condition that he was accompanied
by a servant. She also counselled him not to remain too long outside
the wall, lest his father should become anxious.

It was in the fifth moon: the heat was excessive. No-cha had not gone
a _li_ before he was in a profuse perspiration. Some way ahead he saw
a clump of trees, to which he hastened, and, settling himself in the
shade, opened his coat, and breathed with relief the fresher air. In
front of him he saw a stream of limpid green water running between
two rows of willows, gently agitated by the movement of the wind, and
flowing round a rock. The child ran to the banks of the stream, and
said to his guardian: "I am covered with perspiration, and will bathe
from the rock." "Be quick," said the servant; "if your father returns
home before you he will be anxious." No-cha stripped himself, took his
red silk trousers, several feet long, and dipped them in the water,
intending to use them as a towel. No sooner were the magic trousers
immersed in the stream than the water began to boil, and Heaven and
earth trembled. The water of this river, the Chiu-wan Ho, 'Nine-bends
River,' which communicated with the Eastern Sea, turned completely
red, and Lung Wang's palace shook to its foundations. The Dragon-king,
surprised at seeing the walls of his crystal palace shaking, called
his officers and inquired: "How is it that the palace threatens to
collapse? There should not be an earthquake at this time." He ordered
one of his attendants to go at once and find out what evil was giving
rise to the commotion. When the officer reached the river he saw that
the water was red, but noticed nothing else except a boy dipping a
band of silk in the stream. He cleft the water and called out angrily:
"That child should be thrown into the water for making the river red
and causing Lung Wang's palace to shake."

"Who is that who speaks so brutally?" said No-cha. Then, seeing that
the man intended to seize him, he jumped aside, took his gold bracelet,
and hurled it in the air. It fell on the head of the officer, and
No-cha left him dead on the rock. Then he picked up his bracelet and
said smiling: "His blood has stained my precious horizon of Heaven
and earth." He then washed it in the water.


The Slaying of the Dragon-king's Son

"How is it that the officer does not return?" inquired Lung Wang. At
that moment attendants came to inform him that his retainer had been
murdered by a boy.

Thereupon Ao Ping, the third son of Lung Wang, placing himself at the
head of a troop of marines, his trident in his hand, left the palace
precincts. The warriors dashed into the river, raising on every side
waves mountains high. Seeing the water rising, No-cha stood up on
the rock and was confronted by Ao Ping mounted on a sea-monster.

"Who slew my messenger?" cried the warrior.

"I did," answered No-cha.

"Who are you?" demanded Ao Ping.

"I am No-cha, the third son of Li Ching of Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan. I came
here to bathe and refresh myself; your messenger cursed me, and I
killed him. Then--"

"Rascal! do you not know that your victim was a deputy of the King
of Heaven? How dare you kill him, and then boast of your crime?"

So saying, Ao Ping thrust at the boy with his trident. No-cha, by a
brisk move, evaded the thrust.

"Who are you?" he asked in turn.

"I am Ao Ping, the third son of Lung Wang."

"Ah, you are a blusterer," jeered the boy; "if you dare to touch me
I will skin you alive, you and your mud-eels!"

"You make me choke with rage," rejoined Ao Ping, at the same time
thrusting again with his trident.

Furious at this renewed attack, No-cha spread his silk trousers in
the air, and thousands of balls of fire flew out of them, felling Lung
Wang's son. No-cha put his foot on Ao Ping's head and struck it with
his magic bracelet, whereupon he appeared in his true form of a dragon.

"I am now going to pull out your sinews," he said, "in order to make
a belt for my father to use to bind on his cuirass."

No-cha was as good as his word, and Ao Ping's escort ran and informed
Lung Wang of the fate of his son. The Dragon-king went to Li Ching
and demanded an explanation.

Being entirely ignorant of what had taken place, Li Ching sought
No-cha to question him.


An Unruly Son

No-cha was in the garden, occupied in weaving the belt of
dragon-sinew. The stupefaction of Li Ching may be imagined. "You
have brought most awful misfortunes upon us," he exclaimed. "Come
and give an account of your conduct." "Have no fear," replied No-cha
superciliously; "his son's sinews are still intact; I will give them
back to him if he wishes."

When they entered the house he saluted the Dragon-king, made a curt
apology, and offered to return his son's sinews. The father, moved
with grief at the sight of the proofs of the tragedy, said bitterly
to Li Ching: "You have such a son and yet dare to deny his guilt,
though you heard him haughtily admitting it! To-morrow I shall report
the matter to Yü Huang." Having spoken thus, he departed.

Li Ching was overwhelmed at the enormity of his son's crime. His
wife, in an adjoining room, hearing his lamentations, went to her
husband. "What obnoxious creature is this that you have brought into
the world?" he said to her angrily. "He has slain two spirits, the
son of Lung Wang and a steward sent by the King of Heaven. To-morrow
the Dragon-king is to lodge a complaint with Yü Huang, and two or
three days hence will see the end of our existence."

The poor mother began to weep copiously. "What!" she sobbed, "you whom
I suffered so much for, you are to be the cause of our ruin and death!"

No-cha, seeing his parents so distracted, fell on his knees. "Let me
tell you once for all," he said, "that I am no ordinary mortal. I am
the disciple of T'ai-i Chên-jên; my magic weapons I received from him;
it is they which brought upon me the undying hatred of Lung Wang. But
he cannot prevail. To-day I will go and ask my master's advice. The
guilty alone should suffer the penalty; it is unjust that his parents
should suffer in his stead."


Drastic Measures

He then left for Ch'ien-yüan Shan, and entered the cave of his master
T'ai-i Chên-jên, to whom he related his adventures. The master dwelt
upon the grave consequences of the murders, and then ordered No-cha to
bare his breast. With his finger he drew on the skin a magic formula,
after which he gave him some secret instructions. "Now," he said, "go
to the gate of Heaven and await the arrival of Lung Wang, who purposes
to accuse you before Yü Huang. Then you must come again to consult me,
that your parents may not be molested because of your misdeeds."

When No-cha reached the gate of Heaven it was closed. In vain he sought
for Lung Wang, but after a while he saw him approaching. Lung Wang did
not see No-cha, for the formula written by T'ai-i Chên-jên rendered
him invisible. As Lung Wang approached the gate No-cha ran up to him
and struck him so hard a blow with his golden bracelet that he fell
to the ground. Then No-cha stamped on him, cursing him vehemently.

The Dragon-king now recognized his assailant and sharply reproached him
with his crimes, but the only reparation he got was a renewal of kicks
and blows. Then, partially lifting Lung Wang's cloak and raising his
shield, No-cha tore off from his body about forty scales. Blood flowed
copiously, and the Dragon-king, under stress of the pain, begged his
foe to spare his life. To this No-cha consented on condition that he
relinquished his purpose of accusing him before Yü Huang.

"Now," went on No-cha, "change yourself into a small serpent that I
may take you back without fear of your escaping."

Lung Wang took the form of a small blue dragon, and followed No-cha
to his father's house, upon entering which Lung Wang resumed his
normal form, and accused No-cha of having belaboured him. "I will go
with all the Dragon-kings and lay an accusation before Yü Huang,"
he said. Thereupon he transformed himself into a gust of wind,
and disappeared.



No-cha draws a Bow at a Venture

"Things are going from bad to worse," sighed Li Ching, His son,
however, consoled him: "I beg you, my father, not to let the future
trouble you. I am the chosen one of the gods. My master is T'ai-i
Chên-jên, and he has assured me that he can easily protect us."

No-cha now went out and ascended a tower which commanded a view of
the entrance of the fort. There he found a wonderful bow and three
magic arrows. No-cha did not know that this was the spiritual weapon
belonging to the fort. "My master informed me that I am destined
to fight to establish the coming Chou dynasty; I ought therefore to
perfect myself in the use of weapons. This is a good opportunity." He
accordingly seized the bow and shot an arrow toward the south-west. A
red trail indicated the path of the arrow, which hissed as it flew. At
that moment Pi Yün, a servant of Shih-chi Niang-niang, happened to be
at the foot of K'u-lou Shan (Skeleton Hill), in front of the cave of
his mistress. The arrow pierced his throat, and he fell dead, bathed
in his blood. Shih-chi Niang-niang came out of her cave, and examining
the arrow found that it bore the inscription: "Arrow which shakes the
heavens." She thus knew that it must have come from Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan,
where the magic bow was kept.


Another Encounter

The goddess mounted her blue phoenix, flew over the fort, seized Li
Ching, and carried him to her cave. There she made him kneel before
her, and reminded him how she had protected him that he might gain
honour and glory on earth before he attained to immortality. "It is
thus that you show your gratitude--by killing my servant!"

Li Ching swore that he was innocent; but the tell-tale arrow was
there, and it could not but have come from the fortress. Li Ching
begged the goddess to set him at liberty, in order that he might find
the culprit and bring him to her. "If I cannot find him," he added,
"you may take my life."

Once again No-cha frankly admitted his deed to his father, and followed
him to the cave of Shih-chi Niang-niang. When he reached the entrance
the second servant reproached him with the crime, whereupon No-cha
struck him a heavy blow. Shih-chi Niang-niang, infuriated, threw
herself at No-cha, sword in hand; one after the other she wrenched
from him his bracelet and magic trousers.

Deprived of his magic weapons, No-cha fled to his master, T'ai-i
Chên-jên. The goddess followed and demanded that he be put to
death. A terrible conflict ensued between the two champions, until
T'ai-i Chên-jên hurled into the air his globe of nine fire-dragons,
which, falling on Shih-chi Niang-niang, enveloped her in a whirlwind
of flame. When this had passed it was seen that she was changed
into stone.

"Now you are safe," said T'ai-i Chên-jên to No-cha, "but return
quickly, for the Four Dragon-kings have laid their accusation before
Yü Huang, and they are going to carry off your parents. Follow my
advice, and you will rescue your parents from their misfortune."


No-cha commits Hara-Kiri

On his return No-cha found the Four Dragon-kings on the point of
carrying off his parents. "It is I," he said, "who killed Ao Ping, and
I who should pay the penalty. Why are you molesting my parents? I am
about to return to them what I received from them. Will it satisfy
you?"

Lung Wang agreed, whereupon No-cha took a sword, and before their eyes
cut off an arm, sliced open his stomach, and fell unconscious. His
soul, borne on the wind, went straight to the cave of T'ai-i Chên-jên,
while his mother busied herself with burying his body.

"Your home is not here," said his master to him; "return to Ch'ên-t'ang
Kuan, and beg your mother to build a temple on Ts'ui-p'ing Shan,
forty _li_ farther on. Incense will be burned to you for three years,
at the end of which time you will be reincarnated."


A Habitation for the Soul

During the night, toward the third watch, while his mother was in a
deep sleep, No-cha appeared to her in a dream and said: "My mother,
pity me; since my death, my soul, separated from my body, wanders about
without a home. Build me, I pray you, a temple on Ts'ui-p'ing Shan,
that I may be reincarnated." His mother awoke in tears, and related
her vision to Li Ching, who reproached her for her blind attachment
to her unnatural son, the cause of so much disaster.

For five or six nights the son appeared to his mother, each time
repeating his request. The last time he added: "Do not forget that by
nature I am ferocious; if you refuse my request evil will befall you."

His mother then sent builders to the mountain to construct a temple
to No-cha, and his image was set up in it. Miracles were not wanting,
and the number of pilgrims who visited the shrine increased daily.



Li Ching destroys his Son's Statue

One day Li Ching, with a troop of his soldiers, was passing this
mountain, and saw the roads crowded with pilgrims of both sexes. "Where
are these people going?" he asked. "For six months past," he was told,
"the spirit of the temple on this mountain has continued to perform
miracles. People come from far and near to worship and supplicate him."

"What is the name of this spirit?" inquired Li Ching.

"No-cha," they replied.

"No-cha!" exclaimed the father. "I will go and see him myself."

In a rage Li Ching entered the temple and examined the statue, which
was a speaking image of his son. By its side were images of two of
his servants. He took his whip and began to beat the statue, cursing
it all the while. "It is not enough, apparently, for you to have been
a source of disaster to us," he said; "but even after your death you
must deceive the multitude." He whipped the statue until it fell to
pieces; he then kicked over the images of the servants, and went back,
admonishing the people not to worship so wicked a man, the shame and
ruin of his family. By his orders the temple was burnt to the ground.

When he reached Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan his wife came to him, but he received
her coldly. "You gave birth to that cursed son," he said, "who has been
the plague of our lives, and after his death you build him a temple in
which he deceives the people. Do you wish to have me disgraced? If I
were to be accused at Court of having instituted the worship of false
gods, would not my destruction be certain? I have burned the temple,
and intend that that shall settle the matter once for all; if ever
you think of rebuilding it I will break off all relations with you."


No-cha consults his Master

At the time of his father's visit No-cha was absent from the temple. On
his return he found only its smoking remnants. The spirits of his
two servants ran up lamenting. "Who has demolished my temple?" he
asked. "Li Ching," they replied. "In doing this he has exceeded his
powers," said No-cha. "I gave him back the substance I received from
him; why did he come with violence to break up my image? I will have
nothing more to do with him."

No-cha's soul had already begun to be spiritualised. So he determined
to go to T'ai-i Chên-jên and beg for his help. "The worship rendered
to you there," replied the Taoist, "had nothing in it which should
have offended your father; it did not concern him. He was in the
wrong. Before long Chiang Tzu-ya will descend to inaugurate the new
dynasty, and since you must throw in your lot with him I will find
a way to aid you."


A New No-cha

T'ai-i Chên-jên had two water-lily stalks and three lotus-leaves
brought to him. He spread these on the ground in the form of a human
being and placed the soul of No-cha in this lotus skeleton, uttering
magic incantations the while. There emerged a new No-cha full of
life, with a fresh complexion, purple lips, keen glance, and sixteen
feet of height. "Follow me to my peach-garden," said T'ai-i Chên-jên,
"and I will give you your weapons." He handed him a fiery spear, very
sharp, and two wind-and-fire wheels which, placed under his feet,
served as a Vehicle. A brick of gold in a panther-skin bag completed
his magic armament. The new warrior, after thanking his master,
mounted his wind-and-fire wheels and returned to Ch'ên-t'ang Kuan.


A Battle between Father and Son

Li Ching was informed that his son No-cha had returned and was
threatening vengeance. So he took his weapons, mounted his horse,
and went forth to meet him. Having cursed each other profusely, they
joined battle, but Li Ching was worsted and compelled to flee. No-cha
pursued his father, but as he was on the point of overtaking him Li
Ching's second son, Mu-cha, came on the scene, and keenly reproached
his brother for his unfilial conduct.

"Li Ching is no longer my father," replied No-cha. "I gave him back
my substance; why did he burn my temple and smash up my image?"

Mu-cha thereupon prepared to defend his father, but received on his
back a blow from the golden brick, and fell unconscious. No-cha then
resumed his pursuit of Li Ching.

His strength exhausted, and in danger of falling into the hands
of his enemy, Li Ching drew his sword and was about to kill
himself. "Stop!" cried a Taoist priest. "Come into my cave, and I
will protect you."

When No-cha came up he could not see Li Ching, and demanded his
surrender from the Taoist. But he had to do with one stronger than
himself, no less a being than Wên-chu T'ien-tsun, whom T'ai-i Chên-jên
had sent in order that No-cha might receive a lesson. The Taoist,
with the aid of his magic weapon, seized No-cha, and in a moment he
found a gold ring fastened round his neck, two chains on his feet,
and he was bound to a pillar of gold.


Peace at the Last

At this moment, as if by accident, T'ai-i Chên-jên appeared upon the
scene. His master had No-cha brought before Wên-chu T'ien-tsun and
Li Ching, and advised him to live at peace with his father, but he
also rebuked the father for having burned the temple on Ts'ui-p'ing
Shan. This done, he ordered Li Ching to go home, and No-cha to return
to his cave. The latter, overflowing with anger, his heart full of
vengeance, started again in pursuit of Li Ching, swearing that he would
punish him. But the Taoist reappeared and prepared to protect Li Ching.

No-cha, bristling like a savage cat, threw himself at his enemy
and tried to pierce him with his spear, but a white lotus-flower
emerged from the Taoist's mouth and arrested the course of the
weapon. As No-cha continued to threaten him, the Taoist drew from
his sleeve a mysterious object which rose in the air, and, falling
at the feet of No-cha, enveloped him in flames. Then No-cha prayed
for mercy. The Taoist exacted from him three separate promises: to
live in harmony with his father, to recognize and address him as his
father, and to throw himself at his, the Taoist's, feet, to indicate
his reconciliation with himself.

After this act of reconciliation had been performed, Wên-chu T'ien-tsun
promised Li Ching that he should leave his official post to become an
Immortal able to place his services at the disposal of the new Chou
dynasty, shortly to come into power. In order to ensure that their
reconciliation should last for ever, and to place it beyond No-cha's
power to seek revenge, he gave Li Ching the wonderful object by whose
agency No-cha's feet had been burned, and which had been the means
of bringing him into subjection. It was a golden pagoda, which became
the characteristic weapon of Li Ching, and gave rise to his nickname,
Li the Pagoda-bearer. Finally, Yü Huang appointed him Generalissimo
of the Twenty-six Celestial Officers, Grand Marshal of the Skies,
and Guardian of the Gate of Heaven.



CHAPTER XIII

A Battle of the Gods


Multifarious Versatile Divinities

The _Fêng shên yen i_ describes at length how, during the wars which
preceded the accession of the Chou dynasty in 1122 B.C., a multitude
of demigods, Buddhas, Immortals, etc., took part on one side or the
other, some fighting for the old, some for the new dynasty. They were
wonderful creatures, gifted with marvellous powers. They could at will
change their form, multiply their heads and limbs, become invisible,
and create, by merely uttering a word, terrible monsters who bit and
destroyed, or sent forth poison gases, or emitted flames from their
nostrils. In these battles there is much lightning, thunder, flight
of fire-dragons, dark clouds which vomit burning hails of murderous
weapons; swords, spears, and arrows fall from the sky on to the heads
of the combatants; the earth trembles, the pillars of Heaven shake.


Chun T'i

One of these gifted warriors was Chun T'i, a Taoist of the Western
Paradise, who appeared on the scene when the armies of the rival
dynasties were facing each other. K'ung Hsüan was gallantly holding
the pass of the Chin-chi Ling; Chiang Tzu-ya was trying to take it
by assault--so far without success.

Chun T'i's mission was to take K'ung Hsüan to the abode of the blest,
his wisdom and general progress having now reached the required
degree of perfection. This was a means of breaking down the invincible
resistance of this powerful enemy and at the same time of rewarding
his brilliant talents.

But K'ung Hsüan did not approve of this plan, and a fight took
place between the two champions. At one moment Chun T'i was seized
by a luminous bow and carried into the air, but while enveloped in a
cloud of fire he appeared with eighteen arms and twenty-four heads,
holding in each hand a powerful talisman.


The One-eyed Peacock

He put a silk cord round K'ung Hsüan's neck, touched him with his
wand, and forced him to reassume his original form of a red one-eyed
peacock. Chun T'i seated himself on the peacock's back, and it
flew across the sky, bearing its saviour and master to the Western
Paradise. Brilliantly variegated clouds marked its track through space.


Arrangements for the Siege

On the disappearance of its defender the defile of Chin-chi Ling
was captured, and the village of Chieh-p'ai Kuan, the bulwark of the
enemy's forces, reached. This place was defended by a host of genii
and Immortals, the most distinguished among them being the Taoist
T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, whose specially effective charms had so far
kept the fort secure against every attempt upon it.

Lao Tzu himself had deigned to descend from dwelling in happiness,
together with Yüan-shih T'ien-tsun and Chieh-yin Tao-jên, to take
part in the siege. But the town had four gates, and these heavenly
rulers were only three in number. So Chun T'i was recalled, and each
member of the quartette was entrusted with the task of capturing one
of the gates.



Impediments

Chun T'i's duty was to take the Chüeh-hsien Mên, defended by
T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu. The warriors who had tried to enter the town by
this gate had one and all paid for their temerity with their lives. The
moment each had crossed the threshold a clap of thunder had resounded,
and a mysterious sword, moving with lightning rapidity, had slain him.


Offence and Defence

As Chun T'i advanced at the head of his warriors terrible lightning
rent the air and the mysterious sword descended like a thunderbolt
upon his head. But Chun T'i held on high his Seven-precious Branch,
whereupon there emerged from it thousands of lotus-flowers, which
formed an impenetrable covering and stopped the sword in its fall. This
and the other gates were then forced, and a grand assault was now
directed against the chief defender of the town.

T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, riding his ox and surrounded by his warriors,
for the last time risked the chance of war and bravely faced his four
terrible adversaries. With his sword held aloft, he threw himself on
Chieh-yin Tao-jên, whose only weapon was his fly-whisk. But there
emerged from this a five-coloured lotus-flower, which stopped the
sword-thrust. While Lao Tzu struck the hero with his staff, Yüan-shih
T'ien-tsun warded off the terrible sword with his jade _ju-i_.

Chun T'i now called to his help the spiritual peacock, and took the
form of a warrior with twenty-four heads and eighteen arms. His
mysterious weapons surrounded T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, and Lao Tzu
struck the hero so hard that fire came out from his eyes, nose,
and mouth. Unable to parry the assaults of his adversaries, he next
received a blow from Chun T'i's magic wand, which felled him, and he
took flight in a whirlwind of dust.

The defenders now offered no further resistance, and Yüan-shih
T'ien-tsun thanked Chun T'i for the valuable assistance he had rendered
in the capture of the village, after which the gods returned to their
palace in the Western Heaven.


Attempts at Revenge

T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, vanquished and routed, swore to have his
revenge. He called to his aid the spirits of the twenty-eight
constellations, and marched to attack Wu Wang's army. The honour of
the victory that ensued belonged to Chun T'i, who disarmed both the
Immortal Wu Yün and T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu.

Wu Yün, armed with his magic sword, entered the lists against Chun
T'i; but the latter opened his mouth and a blue lotus-flower came
out and stopped the blows aimed at him. Other thrusts were met by
similar miracles.

"Why continue so useless a fight?" said Chun T'i at last. "Abandon
the cause of the Shang, and come with me to the Western Paradise. I
came to save you, and you must not compel me to make you resume your
original form."

An insulting flow of words was the reply; again the magic sword
descended like lightning, and again the stroke was averted by a timely
lotus-flower. Chun T'i now waved his wand, and the magic sword was
broken to bits, the handle only remaining in Wu Yün's hand.



The Golden-bearded Turtle

Mad with rage, Wu Yün seized his club and tried to fell his enemy. But
Chun T'i summoned a disciple, who appeared with a bamboo pole. This he
thrust out like a fishing-rod, and on a hook at the end of the line
attached to the pole dangled a large golden-bearded turtle. This
was the Immortal Wu Yün, now in his original form of a spiritual
turtle. The disciple seated himself on its back, and both, disappearing
into space, returned to the Western Heavens.


The Battle Won

To conquer T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was more difficult, but after a long
fight Chun T'i waved his Wand of the Seven Treasures and broke his
adversary's sword. The latter, disarmed and vanquished, disappeared
in a cloud of dust. Chun T'i did not trouble to pursue him. The battle
was won.


Buddhahood

A disciple of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, P'i-lu Hsien, 'the Immortal
P'i-lu,' seeing his master beaten in two successive engagements,
left the battlefield and followed Chun T'i to the Western Paradise,
to become a Buddha. He is known as P'i-lu Fo, one of the principal
gods of Buddhism.

Chun T'i's festival is celebrated on the sixth day of the third
moon. He is generally shown with eight hands and three faces, one of
the latter being that of a pig.



CHAPTER XIV

How the Monkey Became a God


The Hsi Yu Chi

In dealing with the gods of China we noticed the monkey among them. Why
and in what manner he attained to that exalted rank is set forth in
detail in the _Hsi yu chi_ [33]--a work the contents of which have
become woven into the fabric of Chinese legendary lore and are known
and loved by every intelligent native. Its pages are filled with
ghosts, demons, and fairies, good and bad, but "it contains no more
than the average Chinese really believes to exist, and his belief in
such manifestations is so firm that from the cradle to the grave he
lives and moves and has his being in reference to them." Its characters
are said to be allegorical, though it may be doubted whether these
implications may rightly be read into the Chinese text. Thus:

Hsüan (or Yüan) Chuang, or T'ang Sêng, is the pilgrim of the _Hsi yu
chi_, who symbolizes conscience, to which all actions are brought for
trial. The priestly garment of Hsüan Chuang symbolizes the good work
of the rectified human nature. It is held to be a great protection
to the new heart from the myriads of evil beings which surround it,
seeking its destruction.

Sun Hou-tzu, the Monkey Fairy, represents human nature, which is prone
to all evil. His unreasonable vagaries moved Hsüan Chuang to compel
him to wear a Head-splitting Helmet which would contract upon his head
in moments of waywardness. The agonizing pressure thus caused would
bring him to his senses, irrespective of his distance from his master.

The iron wand of Sun Hou-tzu is said to represent the use that can be
made of doctrine. It was useful for all purposes, great or small. By
a word it could be made invisible, and by a word it could become long
enough to span the distance between Heaven and earth.

Chu Pa-chieh, the Pig Fairy, with his muck-rake, stands for the
coarser passions, which are constantly at war with the conscience in
their endeavours to cast off all restraint.

Sha Ho-shang, Priest Sha, is a good representation of Mr Faithful
in _The Pilgrim's Progress_. In the _Hsi yu chi_ he stands for the
human character, which is naturally weak and which needs constant
encouragement.


Legend of Sun Hou-tzu

The deeds of this marvellous creature, the hero of the _Hsi yu chi_,
are to be met with continually in Chinese popular literature, and they
are very much alive in the popular mind. In certain parts a regular
worship is offered to him, and in many temples representations of or
legends concerning him are to be seen or heard.

Other names by which Sun Hou-tzu is referred to are: Sun Hsing-chê,
Sun Wu-k'ung, Mei Hou-wang, Ch'i-t'ien Ta Shêng, and Pi-ma Wên, the
last-mentioned being a title which caused him annoyance by recalling
the derisive dignity conferred upon him by Yü Huang. [34] Throughout
the remainder of this chapter Sun Hou-tzu will be shortly referred
to as 'Sun.'

Beyond the seas, in the Eastern continent, in the kingdom of Ao-lai,
is the mountain Hua-kuo Shan. On the steep sides of this mountain there
is a rocky point 36 feet 5 inches high and 24 feet in circumference. At
the very top an egg formed, and, fructified by the breath of the wind,
gave birth to a stone monkey. The newly-born saluted the four points
of the horizon; from his eyes shone golden streaks of lightning,
which filled the palace of the North Pole Star with light. This light
subsided as soon as he was able to take nourishment.

"To-day," said Yü Huang to himself, "I am going to complete the
wonderful diversity of the beings engendered by Heaven and earth. This
monkey will skip and gambol to the highest peaks of mountains, jump
about in the waters, and, eating the fruit of the trees, will be the
companion of the gibbon and the crane. Like the deer he will pass
his nights on the mountain slopes, and during the day will be seen
leaping on their summits or in their caverns. That will be the finest
ornament of all for the mountains!"

The creature's exploits soon caused him to be proclaimed king
of the monkeys. He then began to try to find some means of
becoming immortal. After travelling for eighteen years by land
and sea he met the Immortal P'u-t'i Tsu-shih on the mountain
Ling-t'ai-fang-ts'un. During his travels the monkey had gradually
acquired human attributes; his face remained always as it had been
originally, but dressed in human apparel he began to be civilized. His
new master gave him the family name of Sun, and personal name of
Wu-k'ung, 'Discoverer of Secrets.' He taught him how to fly through
the air, and to change into seventy-two different forms. With one
leap he could cover 108,000 _li_ (about 36,000 miles).



A Rod of Iron

Sun, after his return to Hua-kuo Shan, slew the demon Hun-shih Mo-wang,
who had been molesting the monkeys during his long absence. Then he
organized his subjects into a regular army, 47,000 all told. Thus the
peace of the simian kingdom was assured. As for himself, he could
not find a weapon to suit him, and went to consult Ao Kuang, the
Lung Wang, or Dragon-king of the Eastern Sea, about it. It was from
him that he obtained the formidable rod of iron, formerly planted in
the ocean-bed by the Great Yü (Yü Wang) to regulate the level of the
waters. He pulled it out, and modified it to suit his tastes. The
two extremities he bound round with gold bands, and on it engraved
the words: 'Gold-bound Wand of my Desires.' This magic weapon could
accommodate itself to all his wishes; being able to assume the most
incredible proportions or to reduce itself to the form of the finest of
needles, which he kept hidden in his ear. He terrorized the Four Kings
of the sea, and dressed himself at their expense. The neighbouring
kings allied themselves with him. A splendid banquet with copious
libations of wine sealed the alliance of friendship with the seven
kings; but alas! Sun had partaken so liberally that when he was seeing
his guests off, no sooner had he taken a few steps than he fell into a
drunken sleep. The undertakers of Yen Wang, the King of the Hells, to
whom Lung Wang had accused him as the disturber of his watery kingdom,
seized his soul, put chains round its neck, and led it down to the
infernal regions. Sun awoke in front of the gate of the kingdom of
the dead, broke his fetters, killed his two custodians, and, armed
with his magic staff, penetrated into the realm of Yen Wang, where
he threatened to carry out general destruction. He called to the ten
infernal gods to bring him the Register of the Living and the Dead,
tore out with his own hand the page on which were written his name
and those of his monkey subjects, and then told the King of the Hells
that he was no longer subject to the laws of death. Yen Wang yielded,
though with bad grace, and Sun returned triumphant from his expedition
beyond the tomb.

Before long Sun's escapades came to the knowledge of Yü Huang. Ao
Kuang and Yen Wang each sent deputies to the Master of Heaven, who
took note of the double accusation, and sent T'ai-po Chin-hsing to
summon before him this disturber of the heavenly peace.


Grand Master of the Heavenly Stables

In order to keep him occupied, Sun was appointed Grand Master of the
Heavenly Stables, and was entrusted with the feeding of Yü Huang's
horses; his official celestial title being Pi-ma Wên. Later on,
learning the object of the creation of this derisory appointment,
he overturned the Master's throne, seized his staff, broke down the
South Gate of Heaven, and descended on a cloud to Hua-kuo Shan.


Grand Superintendent of the Heavenly Peach-garden

Yü Huang in great indignation organized a siege of Hua-kuo Shan,
but the Kings of Heaven and the generals with their celestial armies
were repulsed several times. Sun now arrogated to himself the pompous
title of Grand Saint, Governor of Heaven. He had this emblazoned on
his banners, and threatened Yü Huang that he would carry destruction
into his kingdom if he refused to recognize his new dignity. Yü
Huang, alarmed at the result of the military operations, agreed to
the condition laid down by Sun. The latter was then appointed Grand
Superintendent of the Heavenly Peach-garden, the fruit of which
conferred immortality, and a new palace was built for him.


Double Immortality

Having made minute observations on the secret properties of the
peaches, Sun ate of them and was thus assured against death. The
time was ripe for him to indulge in his tricks without restraint,
and an opportunity soon presented itself. Deeply hurt at not having
been invited to the feast of the Peach Festival, P'an-t'ao Hui, given
periodically to the Immortals by Wang-mu Niang-niang, the Goddess of
the Immortals, he resolved upon revenge. When the preparations for the
feast were complete he cast a spell over the servants, causing them
to fall into a deep sleep, and then ate up all the most juicy meats
and drank the fine wines provided for the heavenly guests. Sun had,
however, indulged himself too liberally; with heavy head and bleary
eye he missed the road back to his heavenly abode, and came unaware
to the gate of Lao Chün, who was, however, absent from his palace. It
was only a matter of a few minutes for Sun to enter and swallow the
pills of immortality which Lao Chün kept in five gourds. Thus Sun,
doubly immortal, riding on the mist, again descended to Hua-kuo Shan.


Sun Hou-tzu Captured

These numerous misdeeds aroused the indignation of all the gods and
goddesses. Accusations poured in upon Yü Huang, and he ordered the Four
Gods of the Heavens and their chief generals to bring Sun to him. The
armies laid siege to Hua-kuo Shan, a net was spread in the heavens,
fantastic battles took place, but the resistance of the enemy was as
strenuous and obstinate as before.

Lao Chün and Êrh-lang, nephew of Yü Huang, then appeared on the
scene. Sun's warriors resisted gallantly, but the forces of Heaven
were too much for them, and at length they were overcome. At this
juncture Sun changed his form, and in spite of the net in the sky
managed to find a way out. In vain search was made everywhere, until
Li T'ien-wang, by the help of his devil-finding mirror, detected the
quarry and informed Êrh-lang, who rushed off in pursuit. Lao Chün
hurled his magic ring on to the head of the fugitive, who stumbled
and fell. Quick as lightning, the celestial dog, T'ien Kou, who was
in Êrh-lang's service, threw himself on him, bit him in the calf,
and caused him to stumble afresh. This was the end of the fight. Sun,
surrounded on all sides, was seized and chained. The battle was won.


Sun escapes from Lao Chün's Furnace

The celestial armies now raised the siege, and returned to their
quarters. But a new and unexpected difficulty arose. Yü Huang condemned
the criminal to death, but when they went to carry out the sentence
the executioners learned that he was invulnerable; swords, iron,
fire, even lightning, could make no impression on his skin. Yü Huang,
alarmed, asked Lao Chün the reason of this. The latter replied that
there was nothing surprising about it, seeing that the knave had
eaten the peaches of life in the garden of Heaven and the pills of
immortality which he had composed. "Hand him over to me," he added. "I
will distil him in my furnace of the Eight Trigrams, and extract from
his composition the elements which render him immortal."

Yü Huang ordered that the prisoner be handed over, and in the sight
of all he was shut up in Lao Chün's alchemical furnace, which for
forty-nine days was heated white-hot. But at an unguarded moment
Sun lifted the lid, emerged in a rage, seized his magic staff, and
threatened to destroy Heaven and exterminate its inhabitants. Yü Huang,
at the end of his resources, summoned Buddha, who came and addressed
Sun as follows: "Why do you wish to possess yourself of the Kingdom
of the Heavens?"

"Have I not power enough to be the God of Heaven?" was the arrogant
reply.

"What qualifications have you?" asked Buddha. "Enumerate them."

"My qualifications are innumerable," replied Sun. "I am invulnerable,
I am immortal, I can change myself into seventy-two different forms,
I can ride on the clouds of Heaven and pass through the air at will,
with one leap I can traverse a hundred and eight thousand _li_."

"Well," replied Buddha, "have a match with me; I wager that in one
leap you cannot even jump out of the palm of my hand. If you succeed
I will bestow upon you the sovereignty of Heaven."


Broad-jump Competition

Sun rose into space, flew like lightning in the great vastness, and
reached the confines of Heaven, opposite the five great red pillars
which are the boundaries of the created universe. On one of them
he wrote his name, as irrefutable evidence that he could reach this
extreme limit; this done, he returned triumphant to demand of Buddha
the coveted inheritance.

"But, wretch," said Buddha, "you never went out of my hand!"

"How is that?" rejoined Sun. "I went as far as the pillars of Heaven,
and even took the precaution of writing my name on one of them as
proof in case of need."

"Look then at the words you have written," said Buddha, lifting
a finger on which Sun read with stupefaction his name as he had
inscribed it.

Buddha then seized Sun, transported him out of Heaven, and changed
his five fingers into the five elements, metal, wood, water, fire,
and earth, which instantly formed five high mountains contiguous to
each other. The mountains were called Wu Hsing Shan, and Buddha shut
Sun up in them.


Conditions of Release

Thus subdued, Sun would not have been able to get out of his stone
prison but for the intercession of Kuan Yin P'u-sa, who obtained
his release on his solemn promise that he would serve as guide,
philosopher, and friend to Hsüan Chuang, the priest who was to
undertake the difficult journey of 108,000 _li_ to the Western
Heaven. This promise, on the whole, he fulfilled in the service
of Hsüan Chuang during the fourteen years of the long journey. Now
faithful, now restive and undisciplined, he was always the one to
triumph in the end over the eighty-one fantastical tribulations which
beset them as they journeyed.



Sha Ho-shang

One of the principal of Sun's fellow-servants of the Master was
Sha Ho-shang.

He is depicted wearing a necklace of skulls, the heads of the nine
Chinese deputies sent in former centuries to find the Buddhist canon,
but whom Sha Ho-shang had devoured on the banks of Liu-sha River when
they had attempted to cross it.

He is also known by the name of Sha Wu-ching, and was originally
Grand Superintendent of the Manufactory of Stores for Yü Huang's
palace. During a great banquet given on the Peach Festival to all
the gods and Immortals of the Chinese Olympus he let fall a crystal
bowl, which was smashed to atoms. Yü Huang caused him to be beaten
with eight hundred blows, drove him out of Heaven, and exiled him to
earth. He lived on the banks of the Liu-sha Ho, where every seventh
day a mysterious sword appeared and wounded him in the neck. Having
no other means of subsistence, he used to devour the passers-by.


Sha Ho-shang becomes Baggage-coolie

When Kuan Yin passed through that region on her way to China to find
the priest who was predestined to devote himself to the laborious
undertaking of the quest of the sacred Buddhist books, Sha Ho-shang
threw himself on his knees before her and begged her to put an end
to all his woes.

The goddess promised that he should be delivered by the priest,
her envoy, provided he would engage himself in the service of the
pilgrim. On his promising to do this, and to lead a better life,
she herself ordained him priest. In the end it came about that Hsüan
Chuang, when passing the Sha Ho, took him into his suite as coolie
to carry his baggage. Yü Huang pardoned him in consideration of the
service he was rendering to the Buddhist cause.


Chu Pa-chieh

Chu Pa-chieh is a grotesque, even gross, personage, with all the
instincts of animalism. One day, while he was occupying the high office
of Overseer-general of the Navigation of the Milky Way, he, during a
fit of drunkenness, vilely assaulted the daughter of Yü Huang. The
latter had him beaten with two thousand blows from an iron hammer,
and exiled to earth to be reincarnated.

During his transition a mistake was made, and entering the womb of
a sow he was born half-man, half-pig, with the head and ears of a
pig and a human body. He began by killing and eating his mother, and
then devoured his little porcine brothers. Then he went to live on the
wild mountain Fu-ling Shan, where, armed with an iron rake, he first
robbed and then ate the travellers who passed through that region.

Mao Êrh-chieh, who lived in the cave Yün-chan Tung, engaged him as
carrier of her personal effects, which she afterward bequeathed to him.

Yielding to the exhortations of the Goddess Kuan Yin, who, at the
time of her journey to China, persuaded him to lead a less dissolute
life, he was ordained a priest by the goddess herself, who gave him
the name of Chu (Pig), and the religious name of Wu-nêng, 'Seeker
after Strength.' This monster was knocked down by Sun when the latter
was passing over the mountain accompanied by Hsüan Chuang, and he
declared himself a disciple of the pilgrim priest. He accompanied him
throughout the journey, and was also received in the Western Paradise
as a reward for his aid to the Buddhist propaganda.



Hsüan Chuang, the Master

The origin of this priest was as follows: In the reign of the Emperor
T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, Ch'ên Kuang-jui, a graduate of Hai
Chou, in his examination for the doctor's degree came out as _chuang
yüan_, first on the list. Wên Chiao (also named Man-t'ang Chiao), the
daughter of the minister Yin K'ai-shan, meeting the young academician,
fell in love with him, and married him. Several days after the wedding
the Emperor appointed Ch'ên Kuang-jui Governor of Chiang Chou (modern
Chên-chiang Fu), in Kiangsu. After a short visit to his native town he
started to take up his post. His old mother and his wife accompanied
him. When they reached Hung Chou his mother fell sick and they were
forced to stay for a time at the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers, kept
by one Liu Hsiao-êrh. Days passed; the sickness did not leave her,
and as the time for her son to take over the seals of office was
drawing near, he had to proceed without her.


The Released Carp

Before his departure he noticed a fisherman holding in his hand a fine
carp; this he bought for a small sum to give to his mother. Suddenly
he noticed that the fish had a very extraordinary look, and, changing
his mind, he let it go in the waters of the Hung Chiang, afterward
telling his mother what he had done. She congratulated him on his
action, and assured him that the good deed would not go unrewarded.


The Chuang Yüan Murdered

Ch'ên Kuang-jui re-entered his boat with his wife and a servant. They
were stopped by the chief waterman, Liu Hung, and his assistant. Struck
with the great beauty of Ch'ên Kuang-jui's wife, the former planned
a crime which he carried out with the help of his assistant. At the
dead of night he took the boat to a retired spot, killed Ch'ên and
his servant, threw their bodies into the river, seized his official
documents of title and the woman he coveted, passed himself off as the
real _chuang yüan_, and took possession of the magistracy of Chiang
Chou. The widow, who was with child, had two alternatives--silence
or death. Meantime she chose the former. Before she gave birth to her
child, T'ai-po Chin-hsing, the Spirit of the South Pole Star, appeared
to her, and said he had been sent by Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy,
to present her with a son whose fame would fill the Empire. "Above
all," he added, "take every precaution lest Liu Hung kill the child,
for he will certainly do so if he can." When the child was born the
mother, during the absence of Liu Hung, determined to expose it rather
than see it slain. Accordingly she wrapped it up carefully in a shirt,
and carried it to the bank of the Blue River. She then bit her finger,
and with the blood wrote a short note stating the child's origin,
and hid it in its breast. Moreover, she bit off the infant's left
little toe, as an indelible mark of identity. No sooner had this been
done than a gust of wind blew a large plank to the river's edge. The
poor mother tied her infant firmly to this plank and abandoned it to
the mercy of the waves. The waif was carried to the shore of the isle
of Chin Shan, on which stands the famous monastery of Chin-shan Ssu,
near Chinkiang. The cries of the infant attracted the attention of
an old monk named Chang Lao, who rescued it and gave it the name of
Chiang Liu, 'Waif of the River.' He reared it with much care, and
treasured the note its mother had written with her blood. The child
grew up, and Chang Lao made him a priest, naming him Hsüan Chuang on
the day of his taking the vows. When he was eighteen years of age,
having one day quarrelled with another priest, who had cursed him and
reproached him with having neither father nor mother, he, much hurt,
went to his protector Chang Lao. The latter said to him: "The time has
come to reveal to you your origin." He then told him all, showed him
the note, and made him promise to avenge his assassinated father. To
this end he was made a roving priest, went to the official Court,
and eventually got into touch with his mother, who was still living
with the prefect Liu Hung. The letter placed in his bosom, and the
shirt in which he had been wrapped, easily proved the truth of his
statements. The mother, happy at having found her son, promised to
go and see him at Chin Shan. In order to do this, she pretended to
be sick, and told Liu Hung that formerly, when still young, she had
taken a vow which she had not yet been able to fulfil. Liu Hung himself
helped her to do so by sending a large gift of money to the priests,
and allowed her to go with her servants to perform her devotions at
Chin-shan Ssu. On this second visit, during which she could speak
more freely with her son, she wished to see for herself the wound
she had made on his foot. This removed the last shadow of doubt.


Hsüan Chuang finds his Grandmother

She told Hsüan Chuang that he must first of all go to Hung Chou and
find his grandmother, formerly left at the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers,
and then on to Ch'ang-an to take to her father Yin K'ai-shan a letter,
putting him in possession of the chief facts concerning Liu Hung,
and praying him to avenge her.

She gave him a stick of incense to take to her mother-in-law. The old
lady lived the life of a beggar in a wretched hovel near the city gate,
and had become blind from weeping. The priest told her of the tragic
death of her son, then touched her eyes with the stick of incense, and
her sight was restored. "And I," she exclaimed, "have so often accused
my son of ingratitude, believing him to be still alive!" He took her
back to the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers and settled the account, then
hastened to the palace of Yin K'ai-shan. Having obtained an audience,
he showed the minister the letter, and informed him of all that had
taken place.


The Murderer Executed

The following day a report was presented to the Emperor, who gave
orders for the immediate arrest and execution of the murderer of
Ch'ên Kuang-jui.

Yin K'ai-shan went with all haste to Chên-chiang, where he arrived
during the night, surrounded the official residence, and seized
the culprit, whom he sent to the place where he had committed the
murder. His heart and liver were torn out and sacrificed to the victim.


The Carp's Gratitude

Now it happened that Ch'ên Kuang-jui was not dead after all. The
carp released by him was in fact no other than Lung Wang, the God
of the River, who had been going through his kingdom in that guise
and had been caught in the fisherman's net. On learning that his
rescuer had been cast into the river, Lung Wang had saved him, and
appointed him an officer of his Court. On that day, when his son,
wife, and father-in-law were sacrificing the heart of his assassin
to his _manes_ on the river-bank, Lung Wang ordered that he return
to earth. His body suddenly appeared on the surface of the water,
floated to the bank, revived, and came out full of life and health. The
happiness of the family reunited under such unexpected circumstances
may well be imagined. Ch'ên Kuang-jui returned with his father-in-law
to Chên-chiang, where he took up his official post, eighteen years
after his nomination to it.

Hsüan Chuang became the Emperor's favourite priest. He was held in
great respect at the capital, and had innumerable honours bestowed upon
him, and in the end was chosen for the journey to the Western Paradise,
where Buddha in person handed him the sacred books of Buddhism.


Pai Ma, the White Horse

When he left the capital, Hsüan Chuang had been presented by the
Emperor with a white horse to carry him on his long pilgrimage. One
day, when he reached Shê-p'an Shan, near a torrent, a dragon emerged
from the deep river-bed and devoured both the horse and its saddle. Sun
tried in vain to find the dragon, and at last had to seek the aid of
Kuan Yin.

Now Yü Lung San T'ai-tzu, son of Ao Jun, Dragonking of the Western
Sea, having burnt a precious pearl on the roof of his father's palace,
was denounced to Yü Huang, who had him beaten with three hundred blows
and suspended in the air. He was awaiting death when Kuan Yin passed
on her way to China. The unfortunate dragon requested the goddess
to have pity on him, whereupon she prevailed upon Yü Huang to spare
his life on condition that he served as steed for her pilgrim on the
expedition to the Western Paradise. The dragon was handed over to
Kuan Yin, who showed him the deep pool in which he was to dwell while
awaiting the arrival of the priest. It was this dragon who had devoured
Hsüan Chuang's horse, and Kuan Yin now bade him change himself into a
horse of the same colour to carry the priest to his destination. He
had the honour of bearing on his back the sacred books that Buddha
gave to T'ai Tsung's deputy, and the first Buddhist temple built at
the capital bore the name of Pai-ma Miao, 'Temple of the White Horse.'


Perils by the Way

It is natural to expect that numberless exciting adventures should
befall such an interesting quartette, and indeed the _Hsi yu chi_,
which contains a hundred chapters, is full of them. The pilgrims
encountered eighty difficulties on the journey out and one on the
journey home. The following examples are characteristic of the rest.


The Grove of Cypress-trees

The travellers were making their way westward through shining
waters and over green hills, where they found endless luxuriance
of vegetation and flowers of all colours in profusion. But the way
was long and lonely, and as darkness came on without any sign of
habitation the Priest said: "Where shall we find a resting-place for
the night?" The Monkey replied: "My Master, he who has left home
and become a priest must dine on the wind and lodge on the water,
lie down under the moon and sleep in the forest; everywhere is his
home; why then ask where shall we rest?" But Pa-chieh, who was the
bearer of the pilgrim's baggage, was not satisfied with this reply,
and tried to get his load transferred to the horse, but was silenced
when told that the latter's sole duty was to carry the Master.

However, the Monkey gave Pai Ma a blow with his rod, causing him to
start forward at a great pace, and in a few minutes from the brow of
a hill Hsüan Chuang espied in the distance a grove of cypress-trees,
beneath the shade of which was a large enclosure. This seemed a
suitable place to pass the night, so they made toward it, and as
they approached observed in the enclosure a spacious and luxurious
establishment. There being no indications that the place was then
inhabited, the Monkey made his way inside.


A Proposal of Marriage

He was met by a lady of charming appearance, who came out of an inner
room, and said: "Who is this that ventures to intrude upon a widow's
household?" The situation was embarrassing, but the lady proved to
be most affable, welcomed them all very heartily, told them how she
became a widow and had been left in possession of riches in abundance,
and that she had three daughters, Truth, Love, and Pity by name. She
then proceeded to make a proposal of marriage, not only on behalf
of herself, but of her three daughters as well. They were four men,
and here were four women; she had mountain lands for fruit-trees,
dry lands for grain, flooded fields for rice--more than five thousand
acres of each; horses, oxen, sheep, pigs innumerable; sixty or seventy
farmsteads; granaries choked with grain; storehouses full of silks
and satins; gold and silver enough to last several lifetimes however
extravagantly they lived. Why should the four travellers not finish
their journey there, and be happy ever afterward? The temptation was
great, especially as the three daughters were ladies of surpassing
beauty as well as adepts at needlework and embroidery, well read,
and able to sing sweetly.

But Hsüan Chuang sat as if listening to frogs after rain, unmoved
except by anger that she should attempt to divert him from his heavenly
purpose, and in the end the lady retired in a rage, slamming the door
behind her.

The covetous Pa-chieh, however, expressed himself in favour of
accepting the widow's terms. Finding it impossible to do so openly,
he stole round to the back and secured a private interview. His
personal appearance was against him, but the widow was not altogether
uncompliant. She not only entertained the travellers, but agreed
to Pa-chieh retiring within the household in the character of a
son-in-law, the other three remaining as guests in the guest-rooms.


Blind Man's Buff

But a new problem now arose. If Pa-chieh were wedded to one of the
three daughters, the others would feel aggrieved. So the widow proposed
to blindfold him with a handkerchief, and marry him to whichever
he succeeded in catching. But, with the bandage tied over his eyes,
Pa-chieh only found himself groping in darkness. "The tinkling sound
of female trinkets was all around him, the odour of musk was in his
nostrils; like fairy forms they fluttered about him, but he could no
more grasp one than he could a shadow. One way and another he ran till
he was too giddy to stand, and could only stumble helplessly about."

The prospective mother-in-law then unloosed the bandage, and informed
Pa-chieh that it was not her daughters' 'slipperiness,' as he had
called it, which prevented their capture, but the extreme modesty of
each in being generous enough to forgo her claims in favour of one of
her sisters. Pa-chieh thereupon became very importunate, urging his
suit for any one of the daughters or for the mother herself or for all
three or all four. This was beyond all conscience, but the widow was
equal to the emergency, and suggested another solution. Each of her
daughters wore a waistcoat embroidered in jewels and gold. Pa-chieh
was to try these on in turn, and to marry the owner of the one which
fitted him. Pa-chieh put one on, but as he was tying the cord round
his waist it transformed itself into strong coils of rope which bound
him tightly in every limb. He rolled about in excruciating agony,
and as he did so the curtain of enchantment fell and the beauties
and the palace disappeared.

Next morning the rest of the party on waking up also found that all
had changed, and saw that they had been sleeping on the ground in the
cypress-grove. On making search they found Pa-chieh bound fast to a
tree. They cut him down, to pursue the journey a sadder and wiser Pig,
and the butt of many a quip from his fellow-travellers.


The Lotus Cave

When the party left the Elephant Country, seeing a mountain ahead,
the Master warned his disciples to be careful. Sun said: "Master, say
not so; remember the text of the Sacred Book, 'So long as the heart is
right there is nothing to fear.'" After this Sun kept a close watch
on Pa-chieh, who, while professing to be on guard, slept most of the
time. When they arrived at Ping-ting Shan they were approached by a
woodcutter, who warned them that in the mountain, which extended for
600 _li_ (200 miles), there was a Lotus Cave, inhabited by a band
of demons under two chiefs, who were lying in wait to devour the
travellers. The woodcutter then disappeared. Accordingly, Pa-chieh
was ordered to keep watch. But, seeing some hay, he lay down and went
to sleep, and the mountain demons carried him away to the Lotus Cave.

On seeing Pa-chieh, the second chief said: "He is no good; you must
go in search of the Master and the Monkey." All this time the Monkey,
to protect his Master, was walking ahead of the horse, swinging his
club up and down and to right and left. The Demon-king saw him from
the top of the mountain and said to himself: "This Monkey is famous
for his magic, but I will prove that he is no match for me; I will
yet feast on his Master." So, descending the mountain, he transformed
himself into a lame beggar and waited by the roadside. The Master,
out of pity, persuaded the Monkey to carry him. While on the Monkey's
back the Demon, by magic skill, threw Mount Mêru on to Sun's head,
but the Monkey warded it off with his left shoulder, and walked
on. Then the Demon threw Mount Ô-mei on to Sun's head, and this
he warded off with his right shoulder, and walked on, much to the
Demon's surprise. Lastly the Demon caused T'ai Shan to fall on to his
head. This at last stunned the Monkey. Sha Ho-shang now defended the
Master with his staff, which was, however, no match for the Demon's
starry sword. The Demon seized the Master and carried him under one
arm and Sha Ho-shang under the other to the Lotus Cave.

The two Demons then planned to take their two most precious things,
a yellow gourd and a jade vase, and try to bottle the Monkey. They
arranged to carry them upside down and call out the Monkey's name. If
he replied, then he would be inside, and they could seal him up,
using the seal of the great Ancient of Days, the dweller in the
mansion of T'ai Sui. [35]


The Monkey under the Mountain

When the Monkey found that he was being crushed under the mountain he
was greatly distressed about his Master, and cried out: "Oh, Master,
you delivered me from under the mountain before, and trained me in
religion; how is it that you have brought me to this pass? If you
must die, why should Sha Ho-shang and Pa-chieh and the Dragon-horse
also suffer?" Then his tears poured down like rain.

The spirits of the mountain were astonished at hearing these words. The
guardian angels of the Five Religions asked: "Whose is this mountain,
and who is crushed beneath it?" The local gods replied: "The mountain
is ours, but who is under it we do not know." "If you do not know,"
the angels replied, "we will tell you. It is the Great Holy One,
the Equal of Heaven, who rebelled there five hundred years ago. He
is now converted, and is the disciple of the Chinese ambassador. How
dare you lend your mountain to the Demon for such a purpose?" The
guardian angels and local gods then recited some prayers, and the
mountain was removed. The Monkey sprang up, brandishing his spear,
and the spirits at once apologized, saying that they were under
enforced service to the Demons.

While they were speaking Sun saw a light approaching, and asked
what it was. The spirits replied: "This light comes from the Demons'
magic treasures. We fear they are bringing them to catch you." Sun
then said: "Now we shall have some sport. Who is the Demon-chief's
associate?" "He is a Taoist," they replied, "who is always occupied in
preparing chemicals." The Monkey said: "Leave me, and I will catch them
myself." He then transformed himself into a duplicate of the Taoist.


The Magic Gourd

Sun went to meet the Demons, and in conversation learnt from them that
they were on their way to catch the famous Monkey, and that the magic
gourd and vase were for that purpose. They showed these treasures to
him, and explained that the gourd, though small, could hold a thousand
people. "That is nothing," replied Sun. "I have a gourd which can
contain all the heavens." At this they marvelled greatly, and made a
bargain with him, according to which he was to give them his gourd,
after it had been tested as to its capacity to contain the heavens,
in exchange for their precious gourd and vase. Going up to Heaven,
the Monkey obtained permission to extinguish the light of the sun,
moon, and stars for one hour. At noon the next day there was complete
darkness, and the Demons believed Sun when he stated that he had put
the whole heavens into his gourd so that there could be no light. They
then handed over to the Monkey their magic gourd and vase, and in
exchange he gave them his false gourd.



The Magic Rope

On discovering that they had been deceived, the Demons made complaint
to their chiefs, who informed them that Sun, by pretending to be one
of the Immortals, had outwitted them. They had now lost two out of
their five magic treasures. There remained three, the magic sword,
the magic palm fan, and the magic rope. "Go," said they, "and invite
our dear grandmother to come and dine on human flesh." Personating
one of the Demons, Sun himself went on this errand. He told the old
lady that he wanted her to bring with her the magic rope, with which
to catch Sun. She was delighted, and set out in her chair carried by
two fairies.

When they had gone some few _li_, Sun killed the ladies, and then saw
that they were foxes. He took the magic rope, and thus had three of
the magic treasures. Having changed the dead so that they looked like
living creatures, he returned to the Lotus Cave. Many small demons came
running up, saying that the old lady had been slain. The Demon-king,
alarmed, proposed to release the whole party. But his younger brother
said: "No, let me fight Sun. If I win, we can eat them; if I fail,
we can let them go."

After thirty bouts Sun lost the magic rope, and the Demon lassoed him
with it and carried him to the cave, and took back the magic gourd
and vase. Sun now transformed himself into two false demons. One he
placed instead of himself in the lasso bound to a pillar, and then
went and reported to the second Demon-chief that Sun was struggling
hard, and that he should be bound with a stronger rope lest he make
his escape. Thus, by this strategy, Sun obtained possession of the
magic rope again. By a similar trick he also got back the magic gourd
and vase.



The Master Rescued

Sun and the Demons now began to wrangle about the respective merits
of their gourds, which, each assured the other, could imprison men
and make them obey their wishes. Finally, Sun succeeded in putting
one of the Demons into his gourd.

There ensued another fight concerning the magic sword and palm fan,
during which the fan was burnt to ashes. After more encounters Sun
succeeded in bottling the second Demon in the magic vase, and sealed
him up with the seal of the Ancient of Days. Then the magic sword
was delivered, and the Demons submitted. Sun returned to the cave,
fetched his Master out, swept the cave clean of all evil spirits, and
they then started again on their westward journey. On the road they
met a blind man, who addressed them saying: "Whither away, Buddhist
Priest? I am the Ancient of Days. Give me back my magic treasures. In
the gourd I keep the pills of immortality. In the vase I keep the
water of life. The sword I use to subdue demons. With the fan I stir
up enthusiasm. With the cord I bind bundles. One of these two Demons
had charge of the gold crucible. They stole my magic treasures and
fled to the mundane sphere of mortals. You, having captured them,
are deserving of great reward." But Sun replied: "You should be
severely punished for allowing your servants to do this evil in the
world." The Ancient of Days replied: "No, without these trials your
Master and his disciples could never attain to perfection."

Sun understood and said: "Since you have come in person for the magic
treasures, I return them to you." After receiving them, the Ancient
of Days returned to his T'ai Sui mansion in the skies.



The Red Child Demon

By the autumn the travellers arrived at a great mountain. They saw
on the road a red cloud which the Monkey thought must be a demon. It
was in fact a demon child who, in order to entrap the Master, had had
himself bound and tied to the branch of a tree. The child repeatedly
cried out to the passers-by to deliver him. Sun suspected that it was
a trick; but the Master could no longer endure the pitiful wails; he
ordered his disciples to loose the child, and the Monkey to carry him.

As they proceeded on their way the Demon caused a strong whirlwind to
spring up, and during this he carried off the Master. Sun discovered
that the Demon was an old friend of his, who, centuries before, had
pledged himself to eternal friendship. So he consoled his comrades
by saying that he felt sure no harm would come to the Master.


A Prospective Feast

Soon Sun and his companions reached a mountain covered with
pine-forests. Here they found the Demon in his cave, intent upon
feasting on the Priest. The Demon refused to recognize his ancient
friendship with Sun, so the two came to blows. The Demon set fire to
everything, so that the Monkey might be blinded by the smoke. Thus
he was unable to find his Master. In despair he said: "I must get
the help of some one more skilful than myself." Pa-chieh was sent
to fetch Kuan Yin. The Demon then seized a magic bag, transformed
himself into the shape of Kuan Yin, and invited Pa-chieh to enter the
cave. The simpleton fell into the trap and was seized and placed in
the bag. Then the Demon appeared in his true form, and said: "I am
the beggar child, and mean to cook you for my dinner. A fine man to
protect his Master you are!" The Demon then summoned six of his most
doughty generals and ordered them to accompany him to fetch his father,
King Ox-head, to dine off the pilgrim. When they had gone Sun opened
the bag, released Pa-chieh, and both followed the six generals.


The Generals Tricked

Sun thought that as the Demon had played a trick on Pa-chieh, he
would play one on his generals. So he hurried on in front of them,
and changed himself into the form of King Ox-head. The Demon and
his generals were invited into his presence, and Red Child said:
"If anyone eats of the pilgrim's flesh, his life will be prolonged
indefinitely. Now he is caught and I invite you to feast on him." Sun,
personifying the father, said: "No, I cannot come. I am fasting
to-day. Moreover, Sun has charge of the pilgrim, and if any harm befall
him it will be the worse for you, for he has seventy-two magic arts. He
can make himself so big that your cave cannot contain him, and he
can make himself as small as a fly, a mosquito, a bee, or a butterfly."

Sun then went to Kuan Yin and appealed for help. She gave him a
bottle, but he found he could not move it. "No," said Kuan Yin,
"for all the forces of the ocean are stored in it."

Kuan Yin lifted it with ease, and said: "This dew water is different
from dragon water, and can extinguish the fire of passion. I will
send a fairy with you on your boat. You need no sails. The fairy
needs only to blow a little, and the boat moves along without any
effort." Finally, the Red Child, having been overcome, repented and
begged to be received as a disciple. Kuan Yin received him and blessed
him, giving him the name of Steward.


The Demons of Blackwater River

One day the Master suddenly exclaimed: "What is that noise?" Sun
replied: "You are afraid; you have forgotten the Heart Prayer,
according to which we are to be indifferent to all the calls of the
six senses--the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind. These are the Six
Thieves. If you cannot suppress them, how do you expect to see the
Great Lord?" The Master thought a while and then said: "O disciple,
when shall we see the Incarnate Model (Ju Lai) face to face?"

Pa-chieh said: "If we are to meet such demons as these, it will take
us a thousand years to get to the West." But Sha Ho-shang rejoined:
"Both you and I are stupid; if we persevere and travel on, shoulder
to shoulder, we shall reach there at last." While thus talking,
they saw before them a dark river in flood, which the horse could not
cross. Seeing a small boat, the Master said: "Let us engage that boat
to take us across." While crossing the river in it, they discovered
that it was a boat sent by the Demon of Blackwater River to entrap
them in midstream, and the Master would have been slain had not Sun
and the Western Dragon come to the rescue.


The Slow-carts Country

Having crossed the Blackwater River, they journeyed westward,
facing wind and snow. Suddenly they heard a great shout as of
ten thousand voices. The Master was alarmed, but Sun laughingly
went to investigate. Sitting on a cloud, he rose in the air, and
saw a city, outside of which there were thousands of priests and
carts laden with bricks and all kinds of building materials. This
was the city where Taoists were respected, and Buddhists were not
wanted. The Monkey, who appeared among the people as a Taoist, was
informed that the country was called the Ch'ê Ch'ih, 'Slow-carts
Country,' and for twenty years had been ruled by three Taoists who
could procure rain during times of drought. Their names were Tiger,
Deer, and Sheep. They could also command the wind, and change stones
into gold. The Monkey said to the two leading Taoists: "I wonder
if I shall be so fortunate as to see your Emperor?" They replied:
"We will see to that when we have attended to our business." The
Monkey inquired what business the priests could have. "In former
times," they said, "when our King ordered the Buddhists to pray for
rain, their prayers were not answered. Then the Taoists prayed, and
copious showers fell. Since then all the Buddhist priests have been
our slaves, and have to carry the building materials, as you see. We
must assign them their work, and then will come to you." Sun replied:
"Never mind; I am in search of an uncle of mine, from whom I have not
heard for many years. Perhaps he is here among your slaves." They said:
"You may see if you can find him."


Restraints on Freedom

Sun went to look for his uncle. Hearing this, many Buddhist priests
surrounded him, hoping to be recognized as his lost relative. After
a while he smiled. They asked him the reason. He said: "Why do you
make no progress? Life is not meant for idleness." They said: "We
cannot do anything. We are terribly oppressed." "What power have your
masters?" "By using their magic they can call up wind or rain." "That
is a small matter," said Sun. "What else can they do?" "They can make
the pills of immortality, and change stone into gold."

Sun said: "These are also small matters; many can do the same. How did
these Taoists deceive your King?" "The King attends their prayers night
and day, expecting thereby to attain to immortality." "Why do you not
leave the place?" "It is impossible, for the King has ordered pictures
of us to be hung up everywhere. In all the numerous prefectures,
magistracies, and market-places in Slow-carts Country are pictures of
the Buddhist priests, and any official who catches a runaway priest
is promoted three degrees, while every non-official receives fifty
taels. The proclamation is signed by the King. So you see we are
helpless." Sun then said: "You might as well die and end it all."


Immortal for Suffering

They replied: "A great number have died. At one time we numbered
more than two thousand. But through deaths and suicides there now
remain only about five hundred. And we who remain cannot die. Ropes
cannot strangle us, swords cannot cut us; if we plunge into the
river we cannot sink; poison does not kill us." Sun said: "Then
you are fortunate, for you are all Immortals." "Alas!" said they,
"we are immortal only for suffering. We get poor food. We have only
sand to sleep on. But in the night hours spirits appear to us and
tell us not to kill ourselves, for an Arhat will come from the East
to deliver us. With him there is a disciple, the Great Holy One,
the Equal of Heaven, most powerful and tender-hearted. He will put
an end to these Taoists and have pity on us Buddhists."


The Saviour of the Buddhists

Inwardly Sun was glad that his fame had gone abroad. Returning to the
city, he met the two chief Taoists. They asked him if he had found
his relative. "Yes," he replied, "they are all my relatives!" They
smiled and said: "How is it that you have so many relatives?" Sun
said: "One hundred are my father's relatives, one hundred my mother's
relatives, and the remainder my adopted relatives. If you will let
all these priests depart with me, then I will enter the city with you;
otherwise I will not enter." "You must be mad to speak to us in this
way. The priests were given us by the King. If you had asked for a
few only, we might have consented, but your request is altogether
unreasonable." Sun then asked them three times if they would liberate
the priests. When they finally refused, he grew very angry, took his
magic spear from his ear and brandished it in the air, when all their
heads fell off and rolled on the ground.


Anger of the Buddhist Priests

The Buddhist priests saw from a distance what had taken place,
and shouted: "Murder, murder! The Taoist superintendents are being
killed." They surrounded Sun, saying: "These priests are our masters;
they go to the temple without visiting the King, and return home
without taking leave of the King. The King is the high priest. Why
have you killed his disciples? The Taoist chief priest will certainly
accuse us Buddhist priests of the murders. What are we to do? If we go
into the city with you they will make you pay for this with your life."

Sun laughed. "My friends," he said, "do not trouble yourselves over
this matter. I am not the Master of the Clouds, but the Great Holy
One, a disciple of the Holy Master from China, going to the Western
Paradise to fetch the sacred books, and have come to save you."

"No, no," said they, "this cannot be, for we know him." Sun replied:
"Having never met him, how can you know him?" They replied: "We have
seen him in our dreams. The spirit of the planet Venus has described
him to us and warned us not to make a mistake." "What description did
he give?" asked Sun. They replied: "He has a hard head, bright eyes,
a round, hairy face without cheeks, sharp teeth, prominent mouth,
a hot temper, and is uglier than the Thunder-god. He has a rod of
iron, caused a disturbance in Heaven itself, but later repented,
and is coming with the Buddhist pilgrim in order to save mankind from
calamities and misery." With mixed feelings Sun replied: "My friends,
no doubt you are right in saying I am not Sun. I am only his disciple,
who has come to learn how to carry out his plans. But," he added,
pointing with his hand, "is not that Sun coming yonder?" They all
looked in the direction in which he had pointed.


Sun bestows Talismans

Sun quickly changed himself from a Taoist priest, and appeared in
his natural form. At this they all fell down and worshipped him,
asking his forgiveness because their mortal eyes could not recognize
him. They then begged him to enter the city and compel the demons to
repent. Sun told them to follow him. He then went with them to a sandy
place, emptied two carts and smashed them into splinters, and threw
all the bricks, tiles, and timber into a heap, calling upon all the
priests to disperse. "Tomorrow," he said, "I am going to see the King,
and will destroy the Taoists!" Then they said: "Sir, we dare not go
any farther, lest they attempt to seize you and cause trouble." "Have
no fear," he replied; "but if you think so I will give you a charm to
protect you." He pulled out some hairs, and gave one to each to hold
firmly on the third finger. "If anyone tries to seize you," he said,
"keep tight hold of it, call out 'Great Holy One, the Equal of Heaven,'
and I will at once come to your rescue, even though I be ten thousand
miles away." Some of them tried the charm, and, sure enough, there
he was before them like the God of Thunder. In his hand he held a
rod of iron, and he could keep ten thousand men and horses at bay.


The Magic Circle

It was now winter. The pilgrims were crossing a high mountain by
a narrow pass, and the Master was afraid of wild beasts. The three
disciples bade him fear not, as they were united, and were all good
men seeking truth. Being cold and hungry they rejoiced to see a fine
building ahead of them, but Sun said: "It is another devil's trap. I
will make a ring round you. Inside that you will be safe. Do not wander
outside it. I will go and look for food." Sun returned with his bowl
full of rice, but found that his companions had got tired of waiting,
and had disappeared. They had gone forward to the fine building, which
Pa-chieh entered. Not a soul was to be seen, but on going upstairs
he was terrified to see a human skeleton of immense size lying on
the floor. At this moment the Demon of the house descended on them,
bound the Master, and said: "We have been told that if we eat of your
flesh our white hair will become black again, and our lost teeth grow
anew." So he ordered the small devils who accompanied him to bind the
others. This they did, and thrust the pilgrims into a cave, and then
lay in wait for Sun. It was not long before the Monkey came up, when
a great fight ensued. In the end, having failed, notwithstanding the
exercise of numerous magic arts, to release his companions, Sun betook
himself to the Spiritual Mountain and besought Ju Lai's aid. Eighteen
_lohan_ were sent to help him against the Demon. When Sun renewed the
attack, the _lohan_ threw diamond dust into the air, which blinded the
Demon and also half buried him. But, by skilful use of his magic coil,
he gathered up all the diamond dust and carried it back to his cave.

The _lohan_ then advised Sun to seek the aid of the Ancient of
Days. Accordingly, Sun ascended to the thirty-third Heaven, where
was the palace of the god. He there discovered that the Demon was
none other than one of the god's ox-spirits who had stolen the magic
coil. It was, in fact, the same coil with which Sun himself had at
last been subdued when he had rebelled against Heaven.


Help from Ju Lai

The Ancient of Days mounted a cloud and went with Sun to the cave. When
the Demon saw who had come he was terrified. The Ancient of Days then
recited an incantation, and the Demon surrendered the magic coil
to him. On the recitation of a second incantation all his strength
left him, and he appeared as a bull, and was led away by a ring in
his nose. The Master and his disciples were then set at liberty,
and proceeded on their journey.


The Fire-quenching Fan

In the autumn the pilgrims found themselves in the Ssu Ha Li Country,
where everything was red--red walls, red tiles, red varnish on doors
and furniture. Sixty _li_ from this place was the Flaming Mountain,
which lay on their road westward.

An old man they met told them that it was possible to cross the
Flaming Mountain only if they had the Magic Iron Fan, which, waved
once, quenched fire, waved a second time produced strong wind, and
waved a third time produced rain. This magic fan was kept by the
Iron-fan Princess in a cave on Ts'ui-yün Shan, 1500 _li_ distant. On
hearing this, Sun mounted a cloud, and in an instant was transported
to the cave. The Iron-fan Princess was one of the _lochas_ (wives
and daughters of demons), and the mother of the Red Child Demon, who
had become a disciple of Kuan Yin. On seeing Sun she was very angry,
and determined to be revenged for the outwitting of her husband,
King Ox-head, and for the carrying away of her son. The Monkey said:
"If you lend me the Iron Fan I will bring your son to see you." For
answer she struck him with a sword. They then fell to fighting, the
contest lasting a long while, until at length, feeling her strength
failing, the Princess took out the Iron Fan and waved it. The wind
it raised blew Sun to a distance of 84,000 _li_, and whirled him
about like a leaf in a whirlwind. But he soon returned, reinforced
by further magic power lent him by the Buddhist saints. The Princess,
however, deceived him by giving him a fan which increased the flames
of the mountain instead of quenching them. Sun and his friends had
to retreat more than 20 _li_, or they would have been burned.

The local mountain-gods now appeared, bringing refreshments, and urging
the pilgrims to get the Fan so as to enable them to proceed on their
journey. Sun pointed to his fan and said: "Is not this the Fan?" They
smiled and said: "No, this is a false one which the Princess has
given you." They added: "Originally there was no Flaming Mountain, but
when you upset the furnace in Heaven five hundred years ago the fire
fell here, and has been burning ever since. For not having taken more
care in Heaven, we have been set to guard it. The Demon-king Ox-head,
though he married the _locha_ Princess, deserted her some two years
ago for the only daughter of a fox-king. They live at Chi-lei Shan,
some three thousand _li_ from here. If you can get the true Iron
Fan through his help you will be able to extinguish the flames, take
your Master to the West, save the lives of many people round here,
and enable us to return to Heaven once more."

Sun at once mounted a cloud and was soon at Chi-lei Shan. There
he met the Fox-princess, whom he upbraided and pursued back to
her cave. The Ox-demon came out and became very angry with Sun
for having frightened her. Sun asked him to return with him to the
_locha_ Princess and persuade her to give him the Magic Fan, This he
refused to do. They then fought three battles, in all of which Sun
was successful. He changed into the Ox-demon's shape and visited the
_locha_ Princess. She, thinking he was the Ox-demon, gladly received
him, and finally gave him the Magic Fan; he then set out to return
to his Master.


The Power of the Magic Fan

The Ox-demon, following after Sun, saw him walking along, joyfully
carrying the Magic Fan on his shoulder. Now Sun had forgotten to ask
how to make it small, like an apricot leaf, as it was at first. The
Ox-demon changed himself into the form of Pa-chieh, and going up to
Sun he said: "Brother Sun, I am glad to see you back; I hope you have
succeeded." "Yes," replied Sun, and described his fights, and how he
had tricked the Ox-demon's wife into giving him the Fan. The seeming
Pa-chieh said: "You must be very tired after all your efforts; let
me carry the Magic Fan for you." As soon as he had got possession of
it he appeared in his true form, and tried to use it to blow Sun away
84,000 _li_, for he did not know that the Great Holy One had swallowed
a wind-resisting pill, and was therefore immovable. He then put the
Magic Fan in his mouth and fought with his two swords. He was a match
for Sun in all the magic arts, but through the aid of Pa-chieh and
the help of the local gods sent by the Master the Monkey was able
to prevail against him. The Ox-demon changed himself many times into
a number of birds, but for each of these Sun changed himself into a
swifter and stronger one. The Ox-demon then changed himself into many
beasts, such as tigers, leopards, bears, elephants, and an ox 10,000
feet long. He then said to Sun, with a laugh: "What can you do to me
now?" Sun seized his rod of iron, and cried: "Grow!" He immediately
became 100,000 feet high, with eyes like the sun and moon. They fought
till the heavens and the earth shook with their onslaughts.



Defeat of the Ox-demon

The Ox-demon being of so fierce and terrible a nature, both Buddha
in Heaven and the Taoist Celestial Ruler sent down whole legions of
celebrated warriors to help the Master's servant. The Ox-demon tried
to escape in every direction, one after the other, but his efforts
were in vain. Finally defeated, he was made to promise for himself and
his wife to give up their evil ways and to follow the holy precepts
of the Buddhist doctrine.

The Magic Fan was given to Sun, who at once proceeded to test its
powers. When he waved it once the fires on Flaming Mountain died
out. When he waved it a second time a gentle breeze sprang up. When
he waved it a third time refreshing rain fell everywhere, and the
pilgrims proceeded on their way in comfort.


The Lovely Women

Having travelled over many mountains, the travellers came to a
village. The Master said: "You, my disciples, are always very kind,
taking round the begging-bowl and getting food for me. To-day I will
take the begging-bowl myself." But Sun said: "That is not right; you
must let us, your disciples, do this for you." But the Master insisted.

When he reached the village, there was not a man to be seen, but only
some lovely women. He did not think that it was right for him to speak
to women. On the other hand, if he did not procure anything for their
meal, his disciples would make fun of him. So, after long hesitation,
he went forward and begged food of them. They invited him to their cave
home, and, having learnt who he was, ordered food for him, but it was
all human flesh. The Master informed them that he was a vegetarian,
and rose to take his departure, but instead of letting him go they
surrounded and bound him, thinking that he would be a fine meal for
them next day.


An Awkward Predicament

Then seven of the women went out to bathe in a pool. There Sun, in
search of his Master, found them and would have killed them, only he
thought it was not right to kill women. So he changed himself into an
eagle and carried away their clothes to his nest. This so frightened
the women that they crouched in the pool and did not dare to come out.

But Pa-chieh, also in search of his Master, found the women bathing. He
changed himself into a fish, which the women tried to catch, chasing
him hither and thither round the pool. After a while Pa-chieh leapt
out of the pool and, appearing in his true form, threatened the
women for having bound his Master. In their fright the women fled to
a pavilion, round which they spun spiders' threads so thickly that
Pa-chieh became entangled and fell. They then escaped to their cave
and put on some clothes.


How the Master was Rescued

When Pa-chieh at length had disentangled himself from the webs, he saw
Sun and Sha Ho-shang approaching. Having learnt what had happened,
they feared the women might do some injury to the Master, so they
ran to the cave to rescue him. On the way they were beset by the
seven dwarf sons of the seven women, who transformed themselves into
a swarm of dragon-flies, bees, and other insects. But Sun pulled out
some hairs and, changing them into seven different swarms of flying
insects, destroyed the hostile swarm, and the ground was covered a
foot deep with the dead bodies. On reaching the cave, the pilgrims
found it had been deserted by the women. They released the Master,
and made him promise never to beg for food again. Having given the
promise, he mounted his horse, and they proceeded on their journey.


The Spiders and the Extinguisher

When they had gone a short distance they perceived a great building of
fine architecture ahead of them. It proved to be a Taoist temple. Sha
Ho-shang said: "Let us enter, for Buddhism and Taoism teach the
same things. They differ only in their vestments." The Taoist abbot
received them with civility and ordered five cups of tea. Now he was
in league with the seven women, and when the servant had made the tea
they put poison in each cup. Sun, however, suspected a conspiracy,
and did not drink his tea. Seeing that the rest had been poisoned, he
went and attacked the sisters, who transformed themselves into huge
spiders. They were able to spin ropes instead of webs with which to
bind their enemies. But Sun attacked and killed them all.

The Taoist abbot then showed himself in his true form, a demon with
a thousand eyes. He joined battle with Sun, and a terrible contest
ensued, the result being that the Demon succeeded in putting an
extinguisher on his enemy. This was a new trick which Sun did not
understand. However, after trying in vain to break out through the
top and sides, he began to bore downward, and, finding that the
extinguisher was not deep in the ground, he succeeded in effecting
his escape from below. But he feared that his Master and the others
would die of the poison. At this juncture, while he was suffering
mental tortures on their behalf, a Bodhisattva, Lady Pi Lan, came
to his rescue. By the aid of her magic he broke the extinguisher,
gave his Master and fellow-disciples pills to counteract the poison,
and so rescued them.


Shaving a Whole City

The summer had now arrived. On the road the pilgrims met an old
lady and a little boy. The old lady said: "You are priests; do not
go forward, for you are about to pass into the country known as the
Country that exterminates Religion. The inhabitants have vowed to
kill ten thousand priests. They have already slain that number all
but four noted ones whose arrival they expect; then their number will
be complete."

This old lady was Kuan Yin, with Shên Tsai (Steward), who had come to
give them warning. Sun thereupon changed himself into a candle-moth
and flew into the city to examine for himself. He entered an inn,
and heard the innkeeper warning his guests to look after their own
clothes and belongings when they went to sleep. In order to travel
safely through the city, Sun decided that they should all put on
turbans and clothing resembling that of the citizens. Perceiving
from the innkeeper's warning that thieving was common, Sun stole some
clothing and turbans for his Master and comrades. Then they all came
to the inn at dusk, Sun representing himself as a horse-dealer.

Fearing that in their sleep their turbans would fall off, and their
shaven heads be revealed, Sun arranged that they should sleep in a
cupboard, which he asked the landlady to lock.

During the night robbers came and carried the cupboard away, thinking
to find in it silver to buy horses. A watchman saw many men carrying
this cupboard, and became suspicious, and called out the soldiers. The
robbers ran away, leaving the cupboard in the open. The Master was very
angry with Sun for getting him into this danger. He feared that at
daylight they would be discovered and all be executed. But Sun said:
"Do not be alarmed; I will save you yet!" He changed himself into an
ant, and escaped from the cupboard. Then he plucked out some hairs
and changed them into a thousand monkeys like himself. To each he
gave a razor and a charm for inducing sleep. When the King and all
the officials and their wives had succumbed to this charm, the monkeys
were to shave their heads.

On the morrow there was a terrible commotion throughout the city,
as all the leaders and their families found themselves shaved like
Buddhists.

Thus the Master was saved again.


The Return to China

The pilgrims having overcome the predicted eighty difficulties of
their outward journey, there remained only one to be overcome on the
homeward way.

They were now returning upon a cloud which had been placed at their
disposal, and which had been charged to bear them safely home. But
alas! the cloud broke and precipitated them to the earth by the side
of a wide river which they must cross. There were no ferry-boats or
rafts to be seen, so they were glad to avail themselves of the kind
offices of a turtle, who offered to take them across on his back. But
in midstream the turtle reminded Hsüan Chuang of a promise he had made
him when on his outward journey, namely, that he would intercede for
him before the Ruler of the West, and ask his Majesty to forgive all
past offences and allow him to resume his humanity again. The turtle
asked him if he had remembered to keep his word. Hsüan Chuang replied:
"I remember our conversation, but I am sorry to say that under great
pressure I quite forgot to keep my promise." "Then," said the turtle,
"you are at liberty to dispense with my services." He then disappeared
beneath the water, leaving the pilgrims floundering in the stream with
their precious books. They swam the river, and with great difficulty
managed to save a number of volumes, which they dried in the sun.


The Travellers Honoured

The pilgrims reached the capital of their country without further
difficulty. As soon as they appeared in sight the whole population
became greatly excited, and cutting down branches of willow-trees
went out to meet them. As a mark of special distinction the Emperor
sent his own horse for Hsüan Chuang to ride on, and the pilgrims were
escorted with royal honours into the city, where the Emperor and his
grateful Court were waiting to receive them. Hsüan Chuang's queer
trio of converts at first caused great amusement among the crowds
who thronged to see them, but when they learned of Sun's superhuman
achievements, and his brave defence of the Master, their amusement
was changed into wondering admiration.

But the greatest honours were conferred upon the travellers at
a meeting of the Immortals presided over by Mi-lo Fo, the Coming
Buddha. Addressing Hsüan Chuang, the Buddha said, "In a previous
existence you were one of my chief disciples. But for disobedience
and for lightly esteeming the great teaching your soul was imprisoned
in the Eastern Land. Now a memorial has been presented to me stating
that you have obtained the True Classics of Salvation, thus, by your
faithfulness, completing your meritorious labours. You are appointed
to the high office of Controller of Sacrifices to his Supreme Majesty
the Pearly Emperor."

Turning to Sun, the Buddha said, "You, Sun, for creating a disturbance
in the palace of Heaven, were imprisoned beneath the Mountain of
the Five Elements, until the fullness of Heaven's calamities had
descended upon you, and you had repented and had joined the holy
religion of Buddha. From that time you have endeavoured to suppress
evil and cherish virtue. And on your journey to the West you have
subjugated evil spirits, ghosts, and demons. For your services you
are appointed God of Victorious Strife."

For his repentance, and for his assistance to his Master, Chu Pa-chieh,
the Pig Fairy, was appointed Head Altar-washer to the Gods. This
was the highest office for which he was eligible, on account of his
inherent greed.

Sha Ho-shang was elevated to the rank of Golden Body Perpetual Saint.

Pai Ma, the white horse who had patiently carried Hsüan Chuang and
his burden of books, was led by a god down the Spirit Mountain to
the banks of the Pool of Dragon-transformation. Pai Ma plunged in,
when he changed at once into a four-footed dragon, with horns, scales,
claws, and wings complete. From this time he became the chief of the
celestial dragon tribe.

Sun's first thought upon receiving his promotion was to get rid of the
Head-splitting Helmet. Accordingly he said to his Master, "Now that
I am, like yourself, a Buddha, I want you to relieve my head of the
helmet you imposed upon me during the years of my waywardness." Hsüan
Chuang replied, "If you have really become a Buddha, your helmet
should have disappeared of itself. Are you sure it is still upon your
head?" Sun raised his hand, and lo! the helmet was gone.

After this the great assembly broke up, and each of the Immortals
returned in peace to his own celestial abode.



CHAPTER XV

Fox Legends


The Fox

Among the many animals worshipped by the Chinese, those at times
seen emerging from coffins or graves naturally hold a prominent
place. They are supposed to be the transmigrated souls of deceased
human beings. We should therefore expect such animals as the fox,
stoat, weasel, etc., to be closely associated with the worship of
ghosts, spirits, and suchlike creatures, and that they should be the
subjects of, or included in, a large number of Chinese legends. This
we find. Of these animals the fox is mentioned in Chinese legendary
lore perhaps more often than any other.

The subject of fox-lore has been dealt with exhaustively by
my respected colleague, the late Mr Thomas Watters (formerly
H.B.M. Consul-General at Canton, a man of vast learning and extreme
modesty, insufficiently appreciated in his generation), in the _Journal
of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, viii, 45-65,
to which the reader is referred for details. Generally, the fox is
a creature of ill omen, long-lived (living to eight hundred or even
a thousand years), with a peculiar virtue in every part of his body,
able to produce fire by striking the ground with his tail, cunning,
cautious, sceptical, able to see into the future, to transform himself
(usually into old men, or scholars, or pretty young maidens), and
fond of playing pranks and tormenting mankind.


Fox Legends

Many interesting fox legends are to be found in a collection of stories
entitled _Liao chai chih i_, by P'u Sung-ling (seventeenth century
A.D.), part of which was translated into English many years ago by
Professor H.A. Giles and appeared in two fascinating volumes called
_Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio_. These legends were related
to the Chinese writer by various people as their own experiences.


Friendship with Foxes

A certain man had an enormous stack of straw, as big as a hill, in
which his servants, taking what was daily required for use, had made
quite a large hole. In this hole a fox fixed his abode, and would
often show himself to the master of the house under the form of an
old man. One day the latter invited the master to walk into his abode;
he at first declined, but accepted on being pressed; and when he got
inside, lo! he saw a long suite of handsome apartments. They then
sat down, and exquisitely perfumed tea and wine were brought; but
the place was so gloomy that there was no difference between night
and day. By and by, the entertainment being over, the guest took his
leave; and on looking back the beautiful rooms and their contents had
all disappeared. The old man himself was in the habit of going away in
the evening and returning with the first streaks of morning; and as
no one was able to follow him, the master of the house asked him one
day whither he went. To this he replied that a friend invited him to
take wine; and then the master begged to be allowed to accompany him,
a proposal to which the old man very reluctantly consented. However,
he seized the master by the arm, and away they went as though riding
on the wings of the wind; and in about the time it takes to cook
a pot of millet they reached a city and walked into a restaurant,
where there were a number of people drinking together and making a
great noise. The old man led his companion to a gallery above, from
which they could look down on the feasters below; and he himself went
down and brought away from the tables all kinds of nice food and wine,
without appearing to be seen or noticed by any of the company. After
a while a man dressed in red garments came forward and laid upon
the table some dishes of cumquats; [36] the master at once requested
the old man to go down and get him some of these. "Ah," replied the
latter, "that is an upright man: I cannot approach him." Thereupon
the master said to himself, "By thus seeking the companionship of a
fox, I then am deflected from the true course. Henceforth I too will
be an upright man." No sooner had he formed this resolution than he
suddenly lost all control over his body, and fell from the gallery
down among the revellers below. These gentlemen were much astonished
by his unexpected descent; and he himself, looking up, saw there was
no gallery to the house, but only a large beam upon which he had
been sitting. He now detailed the whole of the circumstances, and
those present made up a purse for him to pay his travelling expenses;
for he was at Yü-t'ai--a thousand _li_ from home.


The Marriage Lottery

A certain labourer, named Ma T'ien-jung, lost his wife when he was
only about twenty years of age, and was too poor to take another. One
day, when out hoeing in the fields, he beheld a nice-looking young
lady leave the path and come tripping across the furrows toward
him. Her face was well painted, [37] and she had altogether such a
refined look that Ma concluded she must have lost her way, and began
to make some playful remarks in consequence. "You go along home,"
cried the young lady, "and I'll be with you by and by." Ma doubted
this rather extraordinary promise, but she vowed and declared she
would not break her word; and then Ma went off, telling her that his
front door faced the north, etc. At midnight the young lady arrived,
and then Ma saw that her hands and face were covered with fine hair,
which made him suspect at once that she was a fox. She did not deny the
accusation; and accordingly Ma said to her, "If you really are one of
those wonderful creatures you will be able to get me anything I want;
and I should be much obliged if you would begin by giving me some
money to relieve my poverty." The young lady said she would; and next
evening, when she came again, Ma asked her where the money was. "Dear
me!" replied she, "I quite forgot it." When she was going away Ma
reminded her of what he wanted, but on the following evening she made
precisely the same excuse, promising to bring it another day. A few
nights afterward Ma asked her once more for the money, and then she
drew from her sleeve two pieces of silver, each weighing about five
or six ounces. They were both of fine quality, with turned-up edges,
[38] and Ma was very pleased, and stored them away in a cupboard. Some
months after this he happened to require some money for use, and took
out these pieces; but the person to whom he showed them said they
were only pewter, and easily bit off a portion of one of them with
his teeth. Ma was much alarmed, and put the pieces away directly,
taking the opportunity when evening came of abusing the young lady
roundly. "It's all your bad luck," retorted she. "Real gold would be
too much for your inferior destiny." There was an end of that; but Ma
went on to say, "I always heard that fox-girls were of surpassing
beauty; how is it you are not?" "Oh," replied the young lady,
"we always adapt ourselves to our company. Now you haven't the luck
of an ounce of silver to call your own; and what would you do, for
instance, with a beautiful princess? My beauty may not be good enough
for the aristocracy; but among your big-footed, bent-backed rustics,
[39] why, it may safely be called 'surpassing'!"

A few months passed away, and then one day the young lady came and
gave Ma three ounces of silver, saying, "You have often asked me for
money, but in consequence of your bad luck I have always refrained
from giving you any. Now, however, your marriage is at hand, and
I here give you the cost of a wife, which you may also regard as a
parting gift from me." Ma replied that he was not engaged, to which the
young lady answered that in a few days a go-between would visit him
to arrange the affair. "And what will she be like?" asked Ma. "Why,
as your aspirations are for 'surpassing' beauty," replied the young
lady, "of course she will be possessed of surpassing beauty." "I hardly
expect that," said Ma; "at any rate, three ounces of silver will not be
enough to get a wife." "Marriages," explained the young lady, "are made
in the moon; [40] mortals have nothing to do with them." "And why must
you be going away like this?" inquired Ma. "Because," answered she,
"for us to meet only by night is not the proper thing. I had better
get you another wife and have done with you." Then when morning came
she departed, giving Ma a pinch of yellow powder, saying, "In case
you are ill after we are separated, this will cure you." Next day,
sure enough, a go-between did come, and Ma at once asked what the
proposed bride was like; to which the former replied that she was
very passable-looking. Four or five ounces of silver was fixed as the
marriage present, Ma making no difficulty on that score, but declaring
he must have a peep at the young lady. [41]  The go-between said she
was a respectable girl, and would never allow herself to be seen;
however, it was arranged that they should go to the house together,
and await a good opportunity. So off they went, Ma remaining outside
while the go-between went in, returning in a little while to tell
him it was all right. "A relative of mine lives in the same court,
and just now I saw the young lady sitting in the hall. We have only
got to pretend we are going to see my relative, and you will be able
to get a glimpse of her." Ma consented, and they accordingly passed
through the hall, where he saw the young lady sitting down with her
head bent forward while some one was scratching her back. She seemed
to be all that the go-between had said; but when they came to discuss
the money it appeared that the young lady wanted only one or two ounces
of silver, just to buy herself a few clothes, etc., which Ma thought
was a very small amount; so he gave the go-between a present for her
trouble, which just finished up the three ounces his fox-friend had
provided. An auspicious day was chosen, and the young lady came over
to his house; when lo! she was humpbacked and pigeon-breasted, with
a short neck like a tortoise, and feet which were fully ten inches
long. The meaning of his fox-friend's remarks then flashed upon him.


The Magnanimous Girl

At Chin-ling there lived a young man named Ku, who had considerable
ability, but was very poor; and having an old mother, he was very
loth to leave home. So he employed himself in writing or painting
[42] for people, and gave his mother the proceeds, going on thus
till he was twenty-five years of age without taking a wife. Opposite
to their house was another building, which had long been untenanted;
and one day an old woman and a young girl came to occupy it, but there
being no gentleman with them young Ku did not make any inquiries as
to who they were or whence they hailed. Shortly afterward it chanced
that just as Ku was entering the house he observed a young lady
come out of his mother's door. She was about eighteen or nineteen,
very clever and refined-looking, and altogether such a girl as one
rarely sets eyes on; and when she noticed Mr Ku she did not run away,
but seemed quite self-possessed. "It was the young lady over the way;
she came to borrow my scissors and measure," said his mother, "and
she told me that there is only her mother and herself. They don't
seem to belong to the lower classes. I asked her why she didn't get
married, to which she replied that her mother was old. I must go and
call on her to-morrow, and find out how the land lies. If she doesn't
expect too much, you could take care of her mother for her." So next
day Ku's mother went, and found that the girl's mother was deaf, and
that they were evidently poor, apparently not having a day's food in
the house. Ku's mother asked what their employment was, and the old
lady said they trusted for food to her daughter's ten fingers. She
then threw out some hints about uniting the two families, to which
the old lady seemed to agree; but, on consultation with her daughter,
the latter would not consent. Mrs Ku returned home and told her son,
saying, "Perhaps she thinks we are too poor. She doesn't speak or
laugh, is very nice-looking, and as pure as snow; truly no ordinary
girl." There ended that; until one day, as Ku was sitting in his
study, up came a very agreeable young fellow, who said he was from a
neighbouring village, and engaged Ku to draw a picture for him. The
two youths soon struck up a firm friendship and met constantly,
and later it happened that the stranger chanced to see the young
lady of over the way. "Who is that?" said he, following her with
his eyes. Ku told him, and then he said, "She is certainly pretty,
but rather stern in her appearance." By and by Ku went in, and his
mother told him the girl had come to beg a little rice, as they had
had nothing to eat all day. "She's a good daughter," said his mother,
"and I'm very sorry for her. We must try and help them a little." Ku
thereupon shouldered a peck of rice, and, knocking at their door,
presented it with his mother's compliments. The young lady received
the rice, but said nothing; and then she got into the habit of coming
over and helping Ku's mother with her work and household affairs,
almost as if she had been her daughter-in-law, for which Ku was very
grateful to her, and whenever he had anything nice he always sent some
of it in to her mother, though the young lady herself never once took
the trouble to thank him. So things went on until Ku's mother got an
abscess on her leg, and lay writhing in agony day and night. Then the
young lady devoted herself to the invalid, waiting on her and giving
her medicine with such care and attention that at last the sick woman
cried out, "O that I could secure such a daughter-in-law as you to see
this old body into its grave!" The young lady soothed her, and replied,
"Your son is a hundred times more filial than I, a poor widow's only
daughter." "But even a filial son makes a bad nurse," answered the
patient; "besides, I am now drawing toward the evening of my life,
when my body will be exposed to the mists and the dews, and I am
vexed in spirit about our ancestral worship and the continuance of our
line." As she was speaking Ku walked in; and his mother, weeping, said,
"I am deeply indebted to this young lady; do not forget to repay her
goodness." Ku made a low bow, but the young lady said, "Sir, when you
were kind to my mother, I did not thank you; why then thank me?" Ku
thereupon became more than ever attached to her; but could never get
her to depart in the slightest degree from her cold demeanour toward
himself. One day, however, he managed to squeeze her hand, upon which
she told him never to do so again; and then for some time he neither
saw nor heard anything of her. She had conceived a violent dislike
to the young stranger above mentioned; and one evening, when he was
sitting talking with Ku, the young lady appeared. After a while she
got angry at something he said, and drew from her robe a glittering
knife about a foot long. The young man, seeing her do this, ran out
in a fright and she after him, only to find that he had vanished. She
then threw her dagger up into the air, and _whish!_ a streak of light
like a rainbow, and something came tumbling down with a flop. Ku got
a light, and ran to see what it was; and lo! there lay a white fox,
head in one place and body in another. "There is your _friend_,"
cried the girl; "I knew he would cause me to destroy him sooner or
later." Ku dragged it into the house, and said, "Let us wait till
to-morrow to talk it over; we shall then be more calm." Next day the
young lady arrived, and Ku inquired about her knowledge of the black
art; but she told Ku not to trouble himself about such affairs, and
to keep it secret or it might be prejudicial to his happiness. Ku
then entreated her to consent to their union, to which she replied
that she had already been as it were a daughter-in-law to his mother,
and there was no need to push the thing further. "Is it because I am
poor?" asked Ku. "Well, I am not rich," answered she, "but the fact
is I had rather not." She then took her leave, and the next evening
when Ku went across to their house to try once more to persuade her
the young lady had disappeared, and was never seen again.


The Boon-companion

Once upon a time there was a young man named Ch'ê, who was not
particularly well off, but at the same time very fond of his wine;
so much so that without his three stoups of liquor every night he was
quite unable to sleep, and bottles were seldom absent from the head
of his bed. One night he had waked up and was turning over and over,
when he fancied some one was in the bed with him; but then, thinking
it was only the clothes which had slipped off, he put out his hand
to feel, and in doing so touched something silky like a cat. Striking
a light, he found it was a fox, lying in a drunken sleep like a dog;
and then looking at his wine bottle he saw that it had been emptied. "A
boon-companion," said he, laughing, as he avoided startling the animal,
and, covering it up, lay down to sleep with his arm across it, and the
candle alight so as to see what transformation it might undergo. About
midnight the fox stretched itself, and Ch'ê cried, "Well, to be sure,
you've had a nice sleep!" He then drew off the clothes, and beheld an
elegant young man in a scholar's dress; but the young man jumped up,
and, making a low obeisance, returned his host many thanks for not
cutting off his head. "Oh," replied Ch'ê, "I am not averse to liquor
myself; in fact they say I'm too much given to it. If you have no
objection, we'll be a pair of bottle-and-glass chums." So they lay
down and went to sleep again, Ch'ê urging the young man to visit him
often, and saying that they must have faith in each other. The fox
agreed to this, but when Ch'ê awoke in the morning his bedfellow had
already disappeared. So he prepared a goblet of first-rate wine in
expectation of his friend's arrival, and at nightfall sure enough he
came. They then sat together drinking, and the fox cracked so many
jokes that Ch'ê said he regretted he had not known him before. "And
truly I don't know how to repay your kindness," replied the former,
"in preparing all this nice wine for me." "Oh," said Ch'ê, "what's
a pint or so of wine?--nothing worth speaking of." "Well," rejoined
the fox, "you are only a poor scholar, and money isn't so easily to be
got. I must see if I can't secure a little wine capital for you." Next
evening, when he arrived, he said to Ch'ê, "Two miles down toward
the south-east you will find some silver lying by the wayside. Go
early in the morning and get it." So on the morrow Ch'ê set off,
and actually obtained two lumps of silver, with which he bought some
choice morsels to help them out with their wine that evening. The fox
now told him that there was a vault in his backyard which he ought to
open; and when he did so he found therein more than a hundred strings
of cash. [43] "Now then," cried Ch'ê, delighted, "I shall have no more
anxiety about funds for buying wine with all this in my purse!" "Ah,"
replied the fox, "the water in a puddle is not inexhaustible. I must
do something further for you." Some days afterward the fox said to
Ch'ê, "Buckwheat is very cheap in the market just now. Something is
to be done in that line." Accordingly Ch'ê bought over forty tons,
and thereby incurred general ridicule; but by and by there was a bad
drought, and all kinds of grain and beans were spoilt. Only buckwheat
would grow, and Ch'ê sold off his stock at a profit of 1000 per
cent. His wealth thus began to increase; he bought two hundred acres
of rich land, and always planted his crops, corn, millet, or what not,
upon the advice of the fox secretly given him beforehand. The fox
looked on Ch'ê's wife as a sister, and on Ch'ê's children as his own;
but when subsequently Ch'ê died it never came to the house again.


The Alchemist [44]

At Ch'ang-an there lived a scholar named Chia Tzu-lung, who one day
noticed a very refined-looking stranger; and, on making inquiries
about him, learned that he was a Mr Chên who had taken lodgings
hard by. Accordingly, Chia called next day and sent in his card,
but did not see Chên, who happened to be out at the time. The same
thing occurred thrice; and at length Chia engaged some one to watch
and let him know when Mr Chên was at home. However, even then the
latter would not come forth to receive his guest, and Chia had to
go in and rout him out. The two now entered into conversation, and
soon became mutually charmed with each other; and by and by Chia sent
off a servant to bring wine from a neighbouring wine-shop. Mr Chên
proved himself a pleasant boon-companion, and when the wine was nearly
finished he went to a box and took from it some wine-cups and a large
and beautiful jade tankard; into the latter he poured a single cup of
wine, and immediately it was filled to the brim. They then proceeded
to help themselves from the tankard; but however much they took out,
the contents never seemed to diminish. Chia was astonished at this,
and begged Mr Chên to tell him how it was done. "Ah," replied Mr Chên,
"I tried to avoid making your acquaintance solely because of your
one bad quality--avarice. The art I practise is a secret known to
the Immortals only: how can I divulge it to you?" "You do me wrong,"
rejoined Chia, "in thus attributing avarice to me. The avaricious,
indeed, are always poor." Mr Chên laughed, and they separated for that
day; but from that time they were constantly together, and all ceremony
was laid aside between them. Whenever Chia wanted money Mr Chên would
bring out a black stone, and, muttering a charm, would rub it on a tile
or a brick, which was forthwith changed into a lump of silver. This
silver he would give to Chia, and it was always just as much as he
actually required, neither more nor less; and if ever the latter asked
for more Mr Chên would rally him on the subject of avarice. Finally
Chia determined to try to get possession of this stone; and one day,
when Mr Chên was sleeping off the fumes of a drinking-bout, he tried
to extract it from his clothes. However, Chên detected him at once,
and declared that they could be friends no more, and next day he
left the place altogether. About a year afterward Chia was one day
wandering by the river-bank, when he saw a handsome-looking stone,
marvellously like that in the possession of Mr Chên; and he picked
it up at once and carried it home with him. A few days passed away,
and suddenly Mr Chên presented himself at Chia's house, and explained
that the stone in question possessed the property of changing anything
into gold, and had been bestowed upon him long before by a certain
Taoist priest whom he had followed as a disciple. "Alas!" added he,
"I got tipsy and lost it; but divination told me where it was,
and if you will now restore it to me I will take care to repay your
kindness." "You have divined rightly," replied Chia; "the stone is
with me; but recollect, if you please, that the indigent Kuan Chung
[45] shared the wealth of his friend Pao Shu." At this hint Mr Chên
said he would give Chia one hundred ounces of silver; to which the
latter replied that one hundred ounces was a fair offer, but that he
would far sooner have Mr Chên teach him the formula to utter when
rubbing the stone on anything, so that he might try the thing once
himself. Mr Chên was afraid to do this; whereupon Chia cried out,
"You are an Immortal yourself; you must know well enough that I
would never deceive a friend." So Mr Chên was prevailed upon to
teach him the formula, and then Chia would have tried the art upon
the immense stone washing-block [46] which was lying near at hand
had not Mr Chên seized his arm and begged him not to do anything
so outrageous. Chia then picked up half a brick and laid it on the
washing-block, saying to Mr Chên, "This little piece is not too much,
surely?" Accordingly Mr Chên relaxed his hold and let Chia proceed;
which he did by promptly ignoring the half-brick and quickly rubbing
the stone on the washing-block. Mr Chên turned pale when he saw him
do this, and made a dash forward to get hold of the stone, but it was
too late; the washing-block was already a solid mass of silver, and
Chia quietly handed him back the stone. "Alas! alas!" cried Mr Chên
in despair, "what is to be done now? For, having thus irregularly
conferred wealth upon a mortal, Heaven will surely punish me. Oh,
if you would save me, give away one hundred coffins [47] and one
hundred suits of wadded clothes." "My friend," replied Chia, "my
object in getting money was not to hoard it up like a miser." Mr
Chên was delighted at this; and during the next three years Chia
engaged in trade, taking care to fulfil always his promise to Mr
Chên. At the expiration of that time Mr Chên himself reappeared, and,
grasping Chia's hand, said to him, "Trustworthy and noble friend,
when we last parted the Spirit of Happiness impeached me before God,
[48] and my name was erased from the list of angels. But now that you
have carried out my request that sentence has been rescinded. Go on
as you have begun, without ceasing." Chia asked Mr Chên what office
he filled in Heaven; to which the latter replied that he was only
a fox who, by a sinless life, had finally attained to that clear
perception of the truth which leads to immortality. Wine was then
brought, and the two friends enjoyed themselves together as of old;
and even when Chia had passed the age of ninety years the fox still
used to visit him from time to time.



CHAPTER XVI

Miscellaneous Legends


The Unnatural People

The _Shan hai ching_, or _Hill and River Classic_, contains
descriptions of some curious people supposed to inhabit the regions
on the maps represented on the nine tripod vases of the Great Yü,
first emperor of the Hsia dynasty.


The Pygmies

The pygmies inhabit many mountainous regions of the Empire, but are
few in number. They are less than nine inches high, but are well
formed. They live in thatched houses that resemble ants' nests. When
they walk out they go in companies of from six to ten, joining hands
in a line for mutual protection against birds that might carry them
away, or other creatures that might attack them. Their tone of voice
is too low to be distinguished by an ordinary human ear. They occupy
themselves in working in wood, gold, silver, and precious stones, but
a small proportion are tillers of the soil. They wear clothes of a red
colour. The sexes are distinguishable by a slight beard on the men,
and long tresses on the women, the latter in some cases reaching four
to five inches in length. Their heads are unduly large, being quite
out of proportion to their small bodies. A husband and wife usually
go about hand in hand. A Hakka charcoal-burner once found three of the
children playing in his tobacco-box. He kept them there, and afterward,
when he was showing them to a friend, he laughed so that drops of
saliva flew from his mouth and shot two of them dead. He then begged
his friend to take the third and put it in a place of safety before
he should laugh again. His friend attempted to lift it from the box,
but it died on being touched.


The Giants

In the Country of the Giants the people are fifty feet in height. Their
footprints are six feet in length. Their teeth are like those of a
saw. Their finger-nails present the appearance of hooked claws, while
their diet consists wholly of uncooked animal food. Their eyebrows
are of such length as to protrude from the front of the carts in
which they ride, large though it is necessary for these vehicles to
be. Their bodies are covered with long black hair resembling that
of the bear. They live to the advanced age of eighteen thousand
years. Though cannibals, they never eat members of their own tribe,
confining their indulgence in human flesh chiefly to enemies taken in
battle. Their country extends some thousands of miles along certain
mountain ranges in North-eastern Asia, in the passes of which they
have strong iron gates, easy to close, but difficult to open; hence,
though their neighbours maintain large standing armies, they have
thus far never been conquered.


The Headless People

The Headless People inhabit the Long Sheep range, to which their
ancestors were banished in the remote past for an offence against the
gods. One of the said ancestors had entered into a controversy with
the rulers of the heavens, and they in their anger had transformed
his two breasts into eyes and his navel into a mouth, removed his
head, leaving him without nose and ears, thus cutting him off from
smell and sound, and banished him to the Long Sheep Mountains, where
with a shield and axe, the only weapons vouchsafed to the people of
the Headless Country, he and his posterity were compelled to defend
themselves from their enemies and provide their subsistence. This,
however, does not in the least seem to have affected their tempers,
as their bodies are wreathed in perpetual smiles, except when they
flourish their warlike weapons on the approach of an enemy. They are
not without understanding, because, according to Chinese notions of
physiology, "their bellies are full of wisdom."


The Armless People

In the Mountains of the Sun and Moon, which are in the Centre of the
Great Waste, are the people who have mo arms, but whose legs instead
grow out of their shoulders. They pick flowers with their toes. They
bow by raising the body horizontal with the shoulders, thus turning
the face to the ground.


The Long-armed and Long-legged People

The Long-armed People are about thirty feet high, their arms reaching
from the shoulders to the ground. Once when a company of explorers
was passing through the country which borders on the Eastern Sea they
inquired of an old man if he knew whether or not there were people
dwelling beyond the waters. He replied that a cloth garment, in fashion
and texture not unlike that of a Chinese coat, with sleeves thirty
feet in length, had been found in the sea. The explorers fitted out an
expedition, and the discovery of the Long-armed Country was the result.

The natives subsist for the most part on fish, which they obtain by
wading in the water, and taking the fish with their hands instead of
with hooks or nets.

The arms of the Long-legged People are of a normal length, the legs
are developed to a length corresponding to that of the arms of the
Long-armed People.

The country of the latter borders on that of the Long-legs. The habits
and food of the two are similar. The difference in their physical
structure makes them of mutual assistance, those with the long arms
being able to take the shellfish of the shallow waters, while those
with the long legs take the surface fish from the deeper localities;
thus the two gather a harvest otherwise unobtainable.


The One-eyed People and Others

A little to the east of the Country of the Long-legs are to be found
the One-eyed People. They have but one eye, rather larger than the
ordinary human eye, placed in the centre of the forehead, directly
above the nose. Other clans or families have but one arm and one leg,
some having a right arm and left leg, others a left arm and right
leg, while still others have both on the same side, and go in pairs,
like shoes. Another species not only has but one arm and one leg,
but is of such fashion as to have but one eye, one nostril, and beard
on but one side of the face, there being as it were rights and lefts,
the two in reality being one, for it is in this way that they pair. The
Long-eared People resemble Chinese in all except their ears. They live
in the far West among mountains and in caves. Their pendant, flabby
ears extend to the ground, and would impede their feet in walking if
they did not support them on their hands. They are sensitive to the
faintest sound. Still another people in this region are distinguished
by having six toes on each foot.



The Feathered People, etc.

The Feathered People are very tall, and are covered with fluffy
down. They have wings in place of arms, and can fly short distances. On
the points of the wings are claws, which serve as hands. Their
noses are like beaks. Gentle and timid, they do not leave their own
country. They have good voices, and like to sing ballads. If one
wishes to visit this people he must go far to the south-east and then
inquire. There is also the Land of the People with Three Faces, who
live in the centre of the Great Waste and never die; the Land of the
Three-heads, east of the K'un-lun Mountains; the Three-body Country,
the inhabitants of which have one head with three bodies, three arms
and but two legs; and yet another where the people have square heads,
broad shoulders, and three legs, and the stones on the land are all
gold and jade.


The People of the Punctured Bodies

Another community is said to be composed of people who have holes
through their chests. They can be carried about on a pole put through
the orifice, or may be comfortably hung upon a peg. They sometimes
string themselves on a rope, and thus walk out in file. They are
harmless people, and eat snakes that they kill with bows and arrows,
and they are very long-lived.


The Women's Kingdom

The Women's Kingdom, the country inhabited exclusively by women, is
said to be surrounded by a sea of less density than ordinary water,
so that ships sink on approaching the shores. It has been reached only
by boats carried thither in whirlwinds, and but few of those wrecked
on its rocks have survived and returned to tell of its wonders. The
women have houses, gardens, and shops. Instead of money they use gems,
perforated and strung like beads. They reproduce their kind by sleeping
where the south wind blows upon them.


The Land of the Flying Cart

Situated to the north of the Plain of Great Joy, the Land of
the Flying Cart joins the Country of the One-armed People on the
south-west and that of the Three-bodied People on the south-east. The
inhabitants have but one arm, and an additional eye of large size in
the centre of the forehead, making three eyes in all. Their carts,
though wheeled, do not run along the ground, but chase each other in
mid-air as gracefully as a flock of swallows. The vehicles have a
kind of winged framework at each end, and the one-armed occupants,
each grasping a flag, talk and laugh one to another in great glee
during what might be called their aerial recreation were it not for
the fact that it seems to be their sole occupation.


The Expectant Wife

A curious legend is told regarding a solitary, weird figure which
stands out, rudely weatherworn, from a hill-top in the pass called
Shao-hsing Gorge, Canton Province. This point of the pass is called
Lung-mên, or Dragon's Mouth, and the hill the Husband-expecting
Hill. The figure itself, which is called the Expectant Wife, resembles
that of a woman. Her bent head and figure down to the waist are
very lifelike.

The story, widely known in this and the neighbouring province, runs as
follows. Centuries ago a certain poor woman was left by her husband,
who went on a journey into Kwangsi, close by, but in those days
considered a wild and distant region, full of dangers. He promised
to return in three years. The time went slowly and sadly past, for
she dearly loved her lord, but no husband appeared. He, ungrateful
and unfaithful spouse, had fallen in love with a fair one in Kwangsi,
a sorceress or witch, who threw a spell over him and charmed him to
his destruction, turning him at length into stone. To this day his
figure may be seen standing near a cave close by the river which is
known by the name of the Detained Man Cave.

The wife, broken by grief at her husband's failure to return, was
likewise turned into a stone, and it is said that a supernatural
power will one day bring the couple to life again and reward the
ever-faithful wife. The legend receives entire credence from the
simple boatmen sad country people.


The Wild Men

The wild beasts of the mountain have a king. He is a wild man, with
long, thick locks, fiery red in colour, and his body is covered with
hair. He is very strong: with a single blow of his huge fist, he can
break large rocks to pieces; he also can pull up the trees of the
forest by the root. His flesh is as hard as iron and is invulnerable
to the thrusts of knife, spear, or sword. He rides upon a tiger when
he leaves his home; he rules over the wolves, leopards, and tigers, and
governs all their affairs. Many other wild men, like him in appearance,
live in these mountains, but on account of his great strength he alone
is king. These wild men kill and eat all human beings they meet, and
other hill tribes live in terror of meeting them. Indeed, who of all
these mountain people would have been left alive had not some men,
more crafty than their fellows, devised a means of overpowering these
fierce savages?

This is the method referred to: On leaving his home the herb-gatherer
of the mountains arms himself with two large hollow bamboo tubes which
he slips over his wrists and arms; he also carries a jar of very
strong wine. When he meets one of the wild men he stands still and
allows the giant to grasp him by the arm. As the giant holds him fast,
as he supposes, in his firm grasp, he quietly and slowly withdraws
one arm from the bamboo cuff, and, taking the pot of wine from the
other hand, quickly pours it down the throat of the stooping giant,
whose mouth is wide open with immoderate laughter at the thought of
having captured a victim so easily. The potent draught of wine acts
at once, causing the victim to drop to the ground in a dead sleep,
whereupon the herb-gatherer either dispatches him summarily with a
thrust through the heart, or leaves the drunken tyrant to sleep off the
effect of his draught, while he returns again to his work of collecting
the health-restoring herbs. In this way have the numbers of these wild
men become less and less, until at the present time but few remain.


The Jointed Snake

The people on Ô-mei Shan tell of a wonderful kind of snake that is
said to live there. Part of its life is spent among the branches of
the trees; if by chance it falls to the ground it breaks up into two
or more pieces. These separate segments later on come together again
and unite.

Many other marvellous and interesting tales are related of this
mountain and its inhabitants.



The Casting of the Great Bell

In every province of China there is a legend relating to the casting
of the great bell swung in the bell tower of the chief city. These
legends are curiously identical in almost every detail. The following
is the one current in Peking.

It was in the reign of Yung Lo, the third monarch of the Ming dynasty,
that Peking first became the capital of China. Till that period the
'Son of Heaven' had held his Court at Nanking, and Peking had been
of comparatively little note. Now, however, on being honoured by the
'Sacred Presence,' stately buildings arose in all directions for
the accommodation of the Emperor and his courtiers. Clever men from
all parts of the Empire were attracted to the capital, and such as
possessed talent were sure of lucrative employment. About this time the
Drum Tower and the Bell Tower were built; both of them as 'look-out'
and 'alarm' towers. The Drum Tower was furnished with a monster drum,
which it still possesses, of such a size that the thunder of its tones
might be heard all over the city, the sound being almost enough to
waken the dead.

The Bell Tower had been completed some time before attempts were
made to cast a bell proportionate to the size of the building. At
length Yung Lo ordered Kuan Yu, a mandarin of the second grade, who
was skilled in casting guns, to cast a bell the sound of which should
be heard, on the least alarm, in every part of the city. Kuan Yu at
once commenced the undertaking. He secured the services of a great
number of experienced workmen, and collected immense quantities of
material. Months passed, and at length it was announced to the Emperor
that everything was ready for the casting. A day was appointed; the
Emperor, surrounded by a crowd of courtiers, and preceded by the
Court musicians, went to witness the ceremony. At a given signal,
and to the crash of music, the melted metal rushed into the mould
prepared for it. The Emperor and his Court then retired, leaving
Kuan Yu and his subordinates to await the cooling of the metal, which
would tell of failure or success. At length the metal was sufficiently
cool to detach the mould from it. Kuan Yu, in breathless trepidation,
hastened to inspect it, but to his mortification and grief discovered
it to be honeycombed in many places. The circumstance was reported to
the Emperor, who was naturally vexed at the expenditure of so much
time, labour, and money with so unsatisfactory a result. However,
he ordered Kuan Yu to try again.

The mandarin hastened to obey, and, thinking the failure of the
first attempt must have resulted from some oversight or omission on
his part, he watched every detail with redoubled care and attention,
fully determined that no neglect or remissness should mar the success
of this second casting.

After months of labour the mould was again prepared, and the metal
poured into it, but again with the same result. Kuan Yu was distracted,
not only at the loss of his reputation, but at the certain loss of
the Emperor's favour. Yung Lo, when he heard of this second failure,
was very wroth, and at once ordered Kuan Yu into his presence, and
told him he would give him a third and last trial, and if he did
not succeed this time he would behead him. Kuan Yu went home in a
despairing state of mind, asking himself what crime he or any of his
ancestors could have committed to have justified this calamity.

Now Kuan Yu had an only daughter, about sixteen years of age, and,
having no sons, the whole of his love was centred in this girl, for
he had hopes of perpetuating his name and fame through her marriage
with some deserving young nobleman. Truly she was worthy of being
loved. She had "almond-shaped eyes, like the autumn waves, which,
sparkling and dancing in the sun, seem to leap up in very joy and
wantonness to kiss the fragrant reeds that grow upon the rivers'
banks, yet of such limpid transparency that one's form could be
seen in their liquid depths as if reflected in a mirror. These were
surrounded by long silken lashes--now drooping in coy modesty, anon
rising in youthful gaiety and disclosing the laughing eyes but just
before concealed beneath them. Eyebrows like the willow leaf; cheeks
of snowy whiteness, yet tinged with the gentlest colouring of the
rose; teeth like pearls of the finest water were seen peeping from
between half-open lips, so luscious and juicy that they resembled
two cherries; hair of the jettiest blackness and of the silkiest
texture. Her form was such as poets love to describe and painters
limn; there was grace and ease in every movement; she appeared to
glide rather than walk, so light was she of foot. Add to her other
charms that she was skilful in verse-making, excellent in embroidery,
and unequalled in the execution of her household duties, and we have
but a faint description of Ko-ai, the beautiful daughter of Kuan Yu."

Well might the father be proud of and love his beautiful child,
and she returned his love with all the ardour of her affectionate
nature; often cheering him with her innocent gaiety when he returned
from his daily vocations wearied or vexed. Seeing him now return
with despair depicted in his countenance, she tenderly inquired the
cause, not without hope of being the means of alleviating it. When
her father told her of his failures, and of the Emperor's threat, she
exclaimed: "Oh, my father, be comforted! Heaven will not always be thus
unrelenting. Are we not told that 'out of evil cometh good'? These
two failures will but enhance the glory of your eventual success,
for success _this_ time _must_ crown your efforts. I am only a girl,
and cannot assist you but with my prayers; these I will daily and
hourly offer up for your success; and the prayers of a daughter for
a loved parent _must_ be heard." Somewhat soothed by the endearments
of Ko-ai, Kuan Yu again devoted himself to his task with redoubled
energy, Ko-ai meanwhile constantly praying for him in his absence,
and ministering to his wants when he returned home. One day it
occurred to the maiden to go to a celebrated astrologer to ascertain
the cause of these failures, and to ask what means could be taken to
prevent a recurrence of them. She thus learned that the next casting
would also be a disappointment if the blood of a maiden were not
mixed with the ingredients. She returned home full of horror at this
information, yet inwardly resolving to immolate herself rather than
allow her father to fail. The day for the casting at length came,
and Ko-ai requested her father to allow her to witness the ceremony
and "to exult in his success," as she laughingly said. Kuan Yu gave
his consent, and accompanied by several servants she went, taking up
a position near the mould.

Everything was prepared as before. An immense concourse assembled
to witness the third and final casting, which was to result either
in honour or degradation and death for Kuan Yu. A dead silence
prevailed through the vast assemblage as the melted metal once more
rushed to its destination; this was broken by a shriek, and a cry,
"For my father!" and Ko-ai was seen to throw herself headlong into the
seething, hissing metal. One of her servants attempted to seize her
while in the act of plunging into the boiling fluid, but succeeded only
in grasping one of her shoes, which came off in his hand. The father
was frantic, and had to be kept by force from following her example;
he was taken home a raving maniac. The prediction of the astrologer
was fulfilled, for, on uncovering the bell after it had cooled, it
was found to be perfect, but not a vestige of Ko-ai was to be seen;
the blood of a maiden had indeed been infused with the ingredients.

After a time the bell was suspended by order of the Emperor,
and expectation was at its height to hear it rung for the first
time. The Emperor himself was present. The bell was struck, and far
and near was heard the deep tone of its sonorous boom. This indeed
was a triumph! Here was a bell surpassing in size and sound any
other that had ever been cast! But--and the surrounding multitudes
were horror-struck as they listened--the heavy boom of the bell was
followed by a low wailing sound like the agonized cry of a woman, and
the word _hsieh_ (shoe) was distinctly heard. To this day the bell,
each time it is rung, after every boom appears to utter the word
'hsieh,' and people when they hear it shudder and say, "There's poor
Ko-ai's voice calling for her shoe."


The Cursed Temple

The reign of Ch'ung Chêng, the last monarch of the Ming dynasty,
was much troubled both by internal broils and by wars. He was
constantly threatened by Tartar hordes from without, though these
were generally beaten back by the celebrated general Wu San-kuei,
and the country was perpetually in a state of anarchy and confusion,
being overrun by bands of marauding rebels; indeed, so bold did
these become under a chief named Li Tzu-ch'êng that they actually
marched on the capital with the avowed intention of placing their
leader on the Dragon Throne. Ch'ung Chêng, on the reception of this
startling news, with no one that he could trust in such an emergency
(for Wu San-kuei was absent on an expedition against the Tartars),
was at his wits' end. The insurgents were almost in sight of Peking,
and at any moment might arrive. Rebellion threatened in the city
itself. If he went out boldly to attack the oncoming rebels his own
troops might go over to the enemy, or deliver him into their hands;
if he stayed in the city the people would naturally attribute it to
pusillanimity, and probably open the gates to the rebels.

In this strait he resolved to go to the San Kuan Miao, an imperial
temple situated near the Ch'ao-yang Mên, and inquire of the gods as
to what he should do, and decide his fate by 'drawing the slip.' If he
drew a long slip, this would be a good omen, and he would boldly march
out to meet the rebels, confident of victory; if a middle length one,
he would remain quietly in the palace and passively await whatever
might happen; but if he should unfortunately draw a short one he would
take his own life rather than suffer death at the hands of the rebels.

Upon arrival at the temple, in the presence of the high officers of
his Court, the sacrifices were offered up, and the incense burnt,
previous to drawing the slip on which hung the destiny of an empire,
while Ch'ung Chêng himself remained on his knees in prayer. At the
conclusion of the sacrificial ceremony the tube containing the bamboo
fortune-telling sticks was placed in the Emperor's hand by one of
the priests. His courtiers and the attendant priests stood round in
breathless suspense, watching him as he swayed the tube to and fro;
at length one fell to the ground; there was dead silence as it was
raised by a priest and handed to the Emperor. _It was a short one!_
Dismay fell on every one present, no one daring to break the painful,
horrible silence. After a pause the Emperor, with a cry of mingled
rage and despair, dashed the slip to the ground, exclaiming: "May this
temple built by my ancestors evermore be accursed! Henceforward may
every suppliant be denied what he entreats, as I have been! Those
who come in sorrow, may that sorrow be doubled; in happiness, may
that happiness be changed to misery; in hope, may they meet despair;
in health, sickness; in the pride of life and strength, death! I,
Ch'ung Chêng, the last of the Mings, curse it!"

Without another word he retired, followed by his courtiers, proceeded
at once to the palace, and went straight to the apartments of the
Empress. The next morning he and his Empress were found suspended from
a tree on Prospect Hill. "In their death they were not divided." The
scenes that followed; how the rebels took possession of the city and
were driven out again by the Chinese general, assisted by the Tartars;
how the Tartars finally succeeded in establishing the Manchu dynasty,
are all matters of history. The words used by the Emperor at the
temple were prophetic; he _was_ the last of the Mings. The tree on
which the monarch of a mighty Empire closed his career and brought
the Ming dynasty to an end was ordered to be surrounded with chains;
it still exists, and is still in chains. Upward of two hundred
and seventy years have passed since that time, yet the temple is
standing as of old; but the halls that at one time were crowded with
worshippers are now silent, no one ever venturing to worship there;
it is the resort of the fox and the bat, and people at night pass it
shudderingly--"It is the cursed temple!"


The Maniac's Mite

An interesting story is told of a lady named Ch'ên, who was a
Buddhist nun celebrated for her virtue and austerity. Between the
years 1628 and 1643 she left her nunnery near Wei-hai city and set
out on a long journey for the purpose of collecting subscriptions for
casting a new image of the Buddha. She wandered through Shantung and
Chihli and finally reached Peking, and there--subscription-book in
hand--she stationed herself at the great south gate in order to take
toll from those who wished to lay up for themselves treasures in the
Western Heaven. The first passer-by who took any notice of her was an
amiable maniac. His dress was made of coloured shreds and patches,
and his general appearance was wild and uncouth. "Whither away,
nun?" he asked. She explained that she was collecting subscriptions
for the casting of a great image of Buddha, and had come all the
way from Shantung. "Throughout my life," remarked the madman, "I was
ever a generous giver." So, taking the nun's subscription-book, he
headed a page with his own name (in very large characters) and the
amount subscribed. The amount in question was two cash, equivalent
to a small fraction of a farthing. He then handed over the two small
coins and went on his way.

In course of time the nun returned to Wei-hai-wei with her
subscriptions, and the work of casting the image was duly begun. When
the time had come for the process of smelting, it was observed that
the copper remained hard and intractable. Again and again the furnace
was fed with fuel, but the shapeless mass of metal remained firm as a
rock. The head workman, who was a man of wide experience, volunteered
an explanation of the mystery. "An offering of great value must be
missing," he said. "Let the collection-book be examined so that it
may be seen whose subscription has been withheld." The nun, who was
standing by, immediately produced the madman's money, which on account
of its minute value she had not taken the trouble to hand over. "There
is one cash," she said, "and there is another. Certainly the offering
of these must have been an act of the highest merit, and the giver
must be a holy man who will some day attain Buddhahood." As she said
this she threw the two cash into the midst of the cauldron. Great
bubbles rose and burst, the metal melted and ran like the sap from
a tree, limpid as flowing water, and in a few moments the work was
accomplished and the new Buddha successfully cast.


The City-god of Yen Ch'êng

The following story of the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa of Yen Ch'êng (Salt
City) is told by Helena von Poseck in the _East of Asia Magazine_,
vol. iii (1904), pp. 169-171. This legend is also related of several
other cities in China.

The Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa is, as already noted, the tutelary god of a
city, his position in the unseen world answering to that of a _chih
hsien_, or district magistrate, among men, if the city under his
care be a _hsien_; but if the city hold the rank of a _fu_, it has
(or used to have until recently) two Ch'êng-huang P'u-sas, one a
prefect, and the other a district magistrate. One part of his duty
consists of sending small demons to carry off the spirits of the
dying, of which spirits he afterward acts as ruler and judge. He is
supposed to exercise special care over the _k'u kuei_, or spirits
which have no descendants to worship and offer sacrifices to them,
and on the occasion of the Seventh Month Festival he is carried round
the city in his chair to maintain order among them, while the people
offer food to them, and burn paper money for their benefit. He is
also carried in procession at the Ch'ing Ming Festival, and on the
first day of the tenth month.

The Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa of the city of Yen Ch'êng is in the extremely
unfortunate predicament of having no skin to his face, which fact is
thus accounted for:

Once upon a time there lived at Yen Ch'êng an orphan boy who was
brought up by his uncle and aunt. He was just entering upon his teens
when his aunt lost a gold hairpin, and accused him of having stolen
it. The boy, whose conscience was clear in the matter, thought of a
plan by which his innocence might be proved.

"Let us go to-morrow to Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa's temple," he said, "and
I will there swear an oath before the god, so that he may manifest
my innocence."

They accordingly repaired to the temple, and the boy, solemnly
addressing the idol, said:

"If I have taken my aunt's gold pin, may my foot twist, and may I
fall as I go out of your temple door!"

Alas for the poor suppliant! As he stepped over the threshold his
foot twisted, and he fell to the ground. Of course, everybody was
firmly convinced of his guilt, and what could the poor boy say when
his own appeal to the god thus turned against him?

After such a proof of his depravity his aunt had no room in her house
for her orphan nephew, neither did he himself wish to stay with people
who suspected him of theft. So he left the home which had sheltered
him for years, and wandered out alone into the cold hard world. Many
a hardship did he encounter, but with rare pluck he persevered in
his studies, and at the age of twenty odd years became a mandarin.

In course of time our hero returned to Yen Ch'êng to visit his uncle
and aunt. While there he betook himself to the temple of the deity who
had dealt so hardly with him, and prayed for a revelation as to the
whereabouts of the lost hairpin. He slept that night in the temple,
and was rewarded by a vision in which the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa told
him that the pin would be found under the floor of his aunt's house.

He hastened back, and informed his relatives, who took up the boards
in the place indicated, and lo! there lay the long-lost pin! The
women of the house then remembered that the pin had been used in
pasting together the various layers of the soles of shoes, and, when
night came, had been carelessly left on the table. No doubt rats,
attracted by the smell of the paste which clung to it, had carried
it off to their domains under the floor.

The young mandarin joyfully returned to the temple, and offered
sacrifices by way of thanksgiving to the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa for
bringing his innocence to light, but he could not refrain from
addressing to him what one is disposed to consider a well-merited
reproach.

"You made me fall down," he said, "and so led people to think I was
guilty, and now you accept my gifts. Aren't you ashamed to do such
a thing? _You have no face!_"

As he uttered the words all the plaster fell from the face of the idol,
and was smashed into fragments.

From that day forward the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa of Yen Ch'êng has had
no skin on his face. People have tried to patch up the disfigured
countenance, but in vain: the plaster always falls off, and the face
remains skinless.

Some try to defend the Ch'êng-huang P'u-sa by saying that he was not
at home on the day when his temple was visited by the accused boy and
his relatives, and that one of the little demons employed by him in
carrying off dead people's spirits out of sheer mischief perpetrated
a practical joke on the poor boy.

In that case it is certainly hard that his skin should so persistently
testify against him by refusing to remain on his face!


The Origin of a Lake

In the city of Ta-yeh Hsien, Hupei, there is a large sheet of water
known as the Liang-ti Lake. The people of the district give the
following account of its origin:

About five hundred years ago, during the Ming dynasty, there was no
lake where the broad waters now spread. A flourishing _hsien_ city
stood in the centre of a populous country. The city was noted for its
wickedness, but amid the wicked population dwelt one righteous woman,
a strict vegetarian and a follower of all good works. In a vision of
the night it was revealed to her that the city and neighbourhood would
be destroyed by water, and the sign promised was that when the stone
lions in front of the _yamên_ wept tears of blood, then destruction
was near at hand. Like Jonah at Nineveh, the woman, known to-day
simply as Niang-tzu, walked up and down the streets of the city,
warning all of the coming calamity. She was laughed at and looked
upon as mad by the careless people. A pork-butcher in the town,
a noted wag, took some pig's blood and sprinkled it round the eyes
of the stone lions. This had the desired effect, for when Niang-tzu
saw the blood she fled from the city amid the jeers and laughter of
the inhabitants. Before many hours had passed, however, the face of
the sky darkened, a mighty earthquake shook the country-side, there
was a great subsidence of the earth's surface, and the waters of the
Yangtzu River flowed into the hollow, burying the city and villages
out of sight. But a spot of ground on which the good woman stood,
after escaping from the doomed city, remained at its normal level,
and it stands to-day in the midst of the lake, an island called
Niang-tzu, a place at which boats anchor at night, or to which they
fly for shelter from the storms that sweep the lake. They are saved
to-day because of one good woman helped by the gods so long ago.

As a proof of the truth of the above story, it is asserted that on
clear days traces of the buried city may be seen, while occasionally
a fisherman casting his net hauls up some household utensil or relic
of bygone days.


Miao Creation Legends

If the Miao have no written records, they have many legends in verse,
which they learn to repeat and sing. The Hei Miao (or Black Miao, so
called from their dark chocolate-coloured clothes) treasure poetical
legends of the Creation and of a deluge. These are composed in lines
of five syllables, in stanzas of unequal length, one interrogative
and one responsive. They are sung or recited by two persons or two
groups at feasts and festivals, often by a group of youths and a
group of maidens. The legend of the Creation commences:


    Who made Heaven and earth?
    Who made insects?
    Who made men?
    Made male and made female?
      I who speak don't know.



    Heavenly King made Heaven and earth,
    Ziene made insects,
    Ziene made men and demons,
    Made male and made female.
      How is it you don't know?



    How made Heaven and earth?
    How made insects?
    How made men and demons?
    Made male and made female?
      I who speak don't know.



    Heavenly King was intelligent,
    Spat a lot of spittle into his hand,
    Clapped his hands with a noise,
    Produced Heaven and earth,
    Tall grass made insects,
    Stories made men and demons,
    Made male and made female.
      How is it you don't know?



The legend proceeds to state how and by whom the heavens were
propped up and how the sun was made and fixed in its place, but the
continuation is exceedingly silly.

The legend of the Flood is another very silly composition, but it is
interesting to note that it tells of a great deluge. It commences:


    Who came to the bad disposition,
    To send fire and burn the hill?
    Who came to the bad disposition,
    To send water and destroy the earth?
      I who sing don't know.



    Zie did. Zie was of bad disposition,
    Zie sent fire and burned the hill;
    Thunder did. Thunder was of bad disposition,
    Thunder sent water and destroyed the earth.
      Why don't you know?


In this story of the flood only two persons were saved in a large
bottle gourd used as a boat, and these were A Zie and his sister. After
the flood the brother wished his sister to become his wife, but she
objected to this as not being proper. At length she proposed that
one should take the upper and one the nether millstone, and going to
opposite hills should set the stones rolling to the valley between. If
these should be found in the valley properly adjusted one above the
other she would be his wife, but not if they came to rest apart. The
young man, considering it unlikely that two stones thus rolled down
from opposite hills would be found in the valley one upon another,
while pretending to accept the test suggested, secretly placed two
other stones in the valley one upon the other. The stones rolled from
the hills were lost in the tall wild grass, and on descending into
the valley A Zie called his sister to come and see the stones he had
placed. She, however, was not satisfied, and suggested as another test
that each should take a knife from a double sheath and, going again
to the opposite hill-tops, hurl them into the valley below. If both
these knives were found in the sheath in the valley she would marry
him, but if the knives were found apart they would live apart. Again
the brother surreptitiously placed two knives in the sheath, and, the
experiment ending as A Zie wished, his sister became his wife. They
had one child, a misshapen thing without arms or legs, which A Zie
in great anger killed and cut to pieces. He threw the pieces all
over the hill, and next morning, on awaking, he found these pieces
transformed into men and women; thus the earth was repeopled.


The Dream of the South Branch

The dawn of Chinese romantic literature must be ascribed to the
period between the eighth and tenth centuries of our era, when
the cultivation of the liberal arts received encouragement at the
hands of sovereigns who had reunited the Empire under the sway of
a single ruler, and whose conquests and distant embassies attracted
representatives from every Asiatic nation to their splendid Court. It
was during this period that the vast bulk of Indian literature was
successfully attacked by a host of Buddhist translators, and that the
alchemists and mechanicians of Central Asia, Persia, and the Byzantine
Empire introduced their varied acquirements to the knowledge of the
Chinese. With the flow of new learning which thus gained admittance to
qualify the frigid and monotonous cultivation of the ancient classics
and their commentators, there came also an impetus to indulgence in
the licence of imagination in which it is impossible to mistake the
influence of Western minds. While the Sanskrit fables, on the one
hand, passed into a Chinese dress, and contributed to the colouring
of the popular mythology, the legends which circulated from mouth to
mouth in the lively Arabian bazaars found, in like manner, an echo
in the heart of China. Side by side with the mechanical efforts
of rhythmical composition which constitute the national ideal of
poetry there began, during the middle period of the T'ang dynasty
(A.D. 618-907), to grow up a class of romantic tales in which the
kinship of ideas with those that distinguish the products of Arabian
genius is too marked to be ignored. The invisible world appears
suddenly to open before the Chinese eye; the relations of the sexes
overstep for a moment the chilling limit imposed by the traditions
of Confucian decorum; a certain degree of freedom and geniality is,
in a word, for the first time and only for a brief interval infused
into the intellectual expression of a nation hitherto closely cramped
in the bonds of a narrow pedantry. It was at this period that the
drama began to flourish, and the germs of the modern novelist's art
made their first appearance. Among the works of imagination dating
from the period in question which have come down to the present
day there is perhaps none which better illustrates the effect of an
exotic fancy upon the sober and methodical authorship of the Chinese,
or which has left a more enduring mark upon the language, than the
little tale which is given in translation in the following pages.

The _Nan k'o mêng_, or _Dream of the South Branch_ (as the title,
literally translated, should read), is the work of a writer named
Li Kung-tso, who, from an incidental mention of his own experiences
in Kiangsi which appears in another of his tales, is ascertained
to have lived at the beginning of the ninth century of our era. The
_nan k'o_, or South Branch, is the portion of a _huai_ tree (_Sophora
Japdonica_, a tree well known in China, and somewhat resembling the
American locust-tree) in which the adventures narrated in the story
are supposed to have occurred; and from this narrative of a dream,
recalling more than one of the incidents recounted in the Arabian
Nights, the Chinese have borrowed a metaphor to enrich the vocabulary
of their literature. The equivalent of our own phrase "the baseless
fabric of a vision" is in Chinese _nan k'o chih mêng_--a dream of
the south branch.


Ch'un-yü Fên enters the Locust-tree

Ch'un-yü Fên, a native of Tung-p'ing, was by nature a gallant who
had little regard for the proprieties of life, and whose principal
enjoyment was found in indulgence in wine-bibbing in the society
of boon-companions. At one time he held a commission in the army,
but this he lost through his dissipated conduct, and from that time
he more than ever gave himself up to the pleasures of the wine-cup.

One day--it was in the ninth moon of the seventh year of Chêng Yüan
(A.D. 791)--after drinking heavily with a party of friends under a
wide-spreading old locust-tree near his house, he had to be carried
to bed and there left to recover, his friends saying that they would
leave him while they went to bathe their feet. The moment he laid down
his head he fell into a deep slumber. In his dream appeared to him two
men clothed in purple, who kneeling down informed him that they had
been sent by their master the King of Huai-an ('Locust-tree Peace') to
request his presence. Unconsciously he rose, and, arranging his dress,
followed his visitors to the door, where he saw a varnished chariot
drawn by a white horse. On each side were ranged seven attendants,
by whom he was assisted to mount, whereupon the carriage drove off,
and, going out of the garden gate, passed through a hole in the trunk
of the locust-tree already spoken of. Filled with astonishment, but
too much afraid to speak, Ch'un-yü noticed that he was passing by
hills and rivers, trees and roads, but of quite a different kind from
those he was accustomed to. A few miles brought them to the walls
of a city, the approach to which was lined with men and vehicles,
who fell back at once the moment the order was given. Over the gate
of the city was a pavilion on which was written in gold letters "The
Capital of Huai-an." As he passed through, the guard turned out, and
a mounted officer, shouting that the husband of the King's daughter
had arrived, showed him the way into a hall where he was to rest
awhile. The room contained fruits and flowers of every description,
and on the tables was laid out a profuse display of refreshments.

While Ch'un-yü still remained lost in astonishment, a cry was raised
that the Prime Minister was coming. Ch'un-yü got up to meet him,
and the two received each other with every demonstration of politeness.


He marries the King's Daughter

The minister, looking at Ch'un-yü, said: "The King, my master,
has brought you to this remote region in order to give his daughter
in marriage to you." "How could I, a poor useless wretch," replied
Ch'un-yü, "have ever aspired to such honour?" With these words both
proceeded toward the audience-chamber, passing through a hall lined
with soldiers, among whom, to his great joy and surprise, Ch'un-yü
recognized an old friend of his former drinking days, to whom he
did not, however, then venture to speak; and, following the Prime
Minister, he was ushered into the King's presence. The King, a man
of noble bearing and imposing stature, was dressed in plain silk,
a jewelled crown reposing on his head. Ch'un-yü was so awe-stricken
that he was powerless even to look up, and the attendants on either
side were obliged to remind him to make his prostrations. The King,
addressing him, said: "Your father, small as my kingdom is, did not
disdain to promise that you should marry my daughter." Ch'un-yü could
not utter a word; he merely lay prostrate on the ground. After a
few moments he was taken back to his apartments, and he busied his
thoughts in trying to discover what all this meant. "My father,"
he said to himself, "fought on the northern frontier, and was taken
prisoner; but whether his life was saved or not I don't know. It may
be that this affair was settled while he was in those distant regions."

That same night preparations were made for the marriage; and the
rooms and passages were filled with damsels who passed and repassed,
filling the air with the sound of their dancing and music. They
surrounded Ch'un-yü and kept up a constant fire of witty remarks,
while he sat there overcome by their grace and beauty, unable to say
a word. "Do you remember," said one of them, coming up to Ch'un-yü,
"the other day when with the Lady Ling-chi I was listening to the
service in the courtyard of a temple, and while I, with all the other
girls, was sitting on the window step, you came up to us, talking
nonsense, and trying to get up a flirtation? Don't you remember how
we tied a handkerchief on the stem of a bamboo?" Then she continued:
"Another time at a temple, when I threw down two gold hairpins and an
ivory box as an offering, you asked the priest to let you look at the
things, and after admiring them for a long time you turned toward me,
and said that neither the gifts nor the donor were of this world;
and you wanted to know my name, and where I lived, but I wouldn't
tell you; and then you gazed on me so tenderly, and could not take
your eyes off me. You remember this, without doubt?" "I have ever
treasured the recollection in my heart; how could I possibly forget
it?" was Ch'un-yü's reply, whereat all the maidens exclaimed that they
had never expected to see him in their midst on this joyful occasion.

At this moment three men came up to Ch'un-yü and stated that they
had been appointed his ministers. He stepped up to one of them
and asked him if his name was not Tzu-hua. "It is," was the reply;
whereupon Ch'un-yü, taking him by the hands, recalled to him their
old friendship, and questioned him as to how he had found his way
to this spot. He then proceeded to ask him if Chou-pien was also
here. "He is," replied the other, "and holding very high office;
he has often used his influence on my behalf."

As they were talking, Ch'un-yü was summoned to the palace, and as he
passed within, a curtain in front of him was drawn aside, disclosing
a young girl of about fourteen years of age. She was known as the
Princess of the Golden Stem, and her dazzling beauty was well in
keeping with her matchless grace.


He writes to his Father

The marriage was celebrated with all magnificence, and the young
couple grew fonder from day to day. Their establishment was kept up
in princely style, their principal amusement being the chase, the King
himself frequently inviting Ch'un-yü to join him in hunting expeditions
to the Tortoise-back Hill. As they were returning one day from one of
these excursions, Ch'un-yü said to the King: "On my marriage day your
Majesty told me that it was my father's desire that I should espouse
your daughter. My father was worsted in battle on the frontier, and
for seventeen years we have had no news of him. If your Majesty knows
his whereabouts, I would beg permission to go and see him."

"Your father," replied the King, "is frequently heard of; you may
send him a letter; it is not necessary to go to him." Accordingly a
letter and some presents were got ready and sent, and in due time a
reply was received, in which Ch'un-yü's father asked many questions
about his relations, his son's occupation, but manifested no desire
that the latter should come to him.


He takes Office

One day Ch'un-yü's wife asked him if he would not like to hold
office. His answer was to the effect that he had always been a rolling
stone, and had no experience of official affairs, but the Princess
promised to give him her assistance, and found occasion to speak on the
subject to her father. In consequence the King one day told Ch'un-yü
that he was not satisfied with the state of affairs in the south of his
territory, that the present governor was old and useless, and that he
would be pleased if he would proceed thither. Ch'un-yü bowed to the
King's commands, and inwardly congratulated himself that such good
fortune should have befallen a rover like him. He was supplied with a
splendid outfit, and farewell entertainments were given in his honour.

Before leaving he acknowledged to the King that he had no great
confidence in his own powers, and suggested that he should be allowed
to take with him Chou-pien and Tzu-hua as commissioners of justice
and finance. The King gave his consent, and issued the necessary
instructions. The day of departure having arrived, both the King
and the Queen came to see Ch'un-yü and his wife off, and to Ch'un-yü
the King said: "The province of Nan-k'o is rich and fertile; and the
inhabitants are brave and prosperous; it is by kindness that you must
rule them." To her daughter the Queen said: "Your husband is violent
and fond of wine. The duty of a wife is to be kind and submissive. Act
well toward him, and I shall have no anxiety. Nan-k'o, it is true,
is not very far--only one day's journey; still, in parting from
you my tears will flow." Ch'un-yü and his bride waved a farewell,
and were whirled away toward their destination, reaching Nan-k'o the
same evening.

Once settled in the place, Ch'un-yü set himself to become thoroughly
acquainted with the manners and customs of the people, and to relieve
distress. To Chou-pien and Tzu-hua he confided all questions of
administration, and in the course of twenty years a great improvement
was to be noticed in the affairs of the province. The people showed
their appreciation by erecting a monument to his honour, while the
King conferred upon him an estate and the dignity of a title, and in
recognition of their services promoted Chou-pien and Tzu-hua to very
high posts. Ch'un-yü's children also shared their father's rewards;
the two sons were given office, while the two daughters were betrothed
to members of the royal family. There remained nothing which could
add to his fame and greatness.


He meets with Disasters

About this period the state of T'an-lo made an incursion on the
province of Nan-k'o. The King at once commanded that Chou-pien should
proceed at the head of 30,000 men to repel the enemy. Chou-pien,
full of confidence, attacked the foe, but sustained a disastrous
defeat, and, barely escaping with his life, returned to the capital,
leaving the invaders to plunder the country and retire. Ch'un-yü threw
Chou-pien into prison, and asked the King what punishment should be
visited upon him. His Majesty granted Chou-pien his pardon; but that
same month he died of disease.

A few days later Ch'un-yü's wife also fell ill and died, whereupon
he begged permission to resign his post and return to Court with his
wife's remains. This request was granted, and Tzu-hua was appointed
in his stead. As Ch'un-yü, sad and dejected, was leaving the city
with the funeral _cortège_, he found the road lined with people giving
loud expression to their grief, and almost ready to prevent his taking
his departure.



He returns Home

As he neared the capital the King and Queen, dressed in mourning, were
awaiting the bier in tears. The Princess, after a posthumous title
had been conferred upon her, was buried with great magnificence a few
miles to the east of the city, while Ch'un-yü remained in the capital,
living in such state, and gaining so much influence, that he excited
the King's jealousy; and when it was foretold, by means of signs in
the heavens, that ruin threatened the kingdom, that its inhabitants
would be swept away, and that this would be the work of an alien,
the prophecy seemed to point to ambitious designs on the part of
Ch'un-yü, and means were taken to keep him under restraint.

Ch'un-yü, conscious that he had faithfully filled a high office for
many years, felt greatly grieved by these calumnies--a result which
the King could not avoid noticing. He accordingly sent for Ch'un-yü,
and said: "For more than twenty years we have been connexions,
although my poor daughter, unfortunately, has not been spared to be
a companion to you in old age. Her mother is now taking care of her
children; your own home you have not seen for many years; return to
see your friends; your children will be looked after, and in three
years you will see them again." "Is not this my home? Whither else am
I to go?" was Ch'un-yü's reply. "My friend," the King said laughingly,
"you are a human being; you don't belong to this place." At these words
Ch'un-yü seemed to fall into a deep swoon, and he remained unconscious
for some time, after which he began to recall some glimpses of the
distant past. With tears in his eyes he begged that he might be
allowed to return to his home, and, saying farewell, he departed.

Outside the palace he found the same two officials in purple clothes
who had led the way so many years ago. A conveyance was also there,
but this time it was a mere bullock-cart, with no outriders. He took
the same road as before, and noticed the same hills and streams. The
two officials were by no means imposing this time, and when he asked
how far was his destination they continued to hum and whistle and
paid no attention to him. At last they passed through an opening, and
he recognized his own village, precisely as he had left it. The two
officials desired him to get down and walk up the steps before him,
where, much to his horror, he saw himself lying down in the porch. He
was too much bedazed with terror to advance, but the two officials
called out his name several times, and upon this he awoke. The
servants were bustling about the house, and his two companions
were still washing their feet. Everything was as he had left it,
and the lifetime he had lived in his dream had occupied only a few
moments. Calling out to his two friends, he made them follow him to
the locust-tree, and pointed out the opening through which he had
begun his journey in dream-land.

An axe was sent for, and the interior of the trunk thrown open,
whereupon a series of galleries was laid bare. At the root of the
tree a mound of earth was discovered, in shape like a city, and
swarming with ants. This was the capital of the kingdom in which
he had lived in his dream. A terrace surrounded by a guard of ants
was the residence of the King and Queen, two winged insects with
red heads. Twenty feet or so along another gallery was found an
old tortoise-shell covered with a thick growth of moss; it was the
Tortoise-back Hill of the dream. In another direction was found a
small mound of earth round which was coiled a root in shape like a
dragon's tongue; it was the grave of the King's daughter, Ch'un-yü's
wife in the vision. As he recalled each incident of the dream he was
much affected at discovering its counterpart in this nest of ants,
and he refused to allow his companions to disturb it further. They
replaced everything as they had found it; but that night a storm of
wind and rain came, and next morning not a vestige of the ants was
to be seen. They had all disappeared, and here was the fulfilment of
the warning in the dream, that the kingdom would be swept away.


Ch'un-yü Regenerate

At this time Ch'un-yü had not seen Chou-pien and Tzu-hua for some
ten days. He sent a messenger to make inquiries about them, and the
news he brought back was that Chou-pien was dead and Tzu-hua lying
ill. The fleeting nature of man's existence revealed itself to him
as he recalled the greatness of these two men in the ant-world. From
that day he became a reformed man; drink and dissipation were put
aside. After three years had elapsed he died, thus giving effect to
the promise of the ant-king that he should see his children once more
at the end of three years.


Why the Jung Tribe have Heads of Dogs

The wave of conquest which swept from north to south in the earliest
periods of Chinese history [49] left on its way, like small islands
in the ocean, certain remnants of aboriginal tribes which survived
and continued to exist despite the sustained hostile attitude of the
flood of alien settlers around them. When stationed at Foochow I saw
the settlements of one of these tribes which lived in the mountainous
country not very many miles inland from that place. They were those
of the Jung tribe, the members of which wore on their heads a large
and peculiar headgear constructed of bamboo splints resting on a
peg inserted in the chignon at the back of the head, the weight of
the structure in front being counterbalanced by a pad, serving as
a weight, attached to the end of the splints, which projected as
far down as the middle of the shoulders. This framework was covered
by a mantilla of red cloth which, when not rolled up, concealed the
whole head and face, The following legend, related to me on the spot,
explains the origin of this unusual headdress.


Two Tribes at War

In early times the Chief of a Chinese tribe (another version says
an Emperor of China) was at war with the Chief of another tribe who
came to attack his territory from the west. The Western Chief so badly
defeated the Chinese army that none of the generals or soldiers could
be induced to renew hostilities and endeavour to drive the enemy back
to his own country. This distressed the Chinese Chief very much. As
a last resort he issued a proclamation promising his daughter in
marriage to anyone who would bring him the head of his enemy, the
Chief of the West.


The Chief's Promise

The people in the palace talked much of this promise made by the
Chief, and their conversation was listened to by a fine large white
dog belonging to one of the generals. This dog, having pondered the
matter well, waited until midnight and then stole over to the tent
of the enemy Chief. The latter, as well as his guard, was asleep;
or, if the guard was not, the dog succeeded in avoiding him in the
darkness. Entering the tent, the dog gnawed through the Chief's
neck and carried his head off in his mouth. At dawn he placed it at
the Chinese Chief's feet, and waited for his reward. The Chief was
soon able to verify the fact that his enemy had been slain, for the
headless body had caused so much consternation in the hostile army
that it had already begun to retreat from Chinese territory.


A Strange Contract

The dog then reminded the Chief of his promise, and asked for his
daughter's hand in marriage. "But how," said the Chief, "can I possibly
marry my daughter to a dog?" "Well," replied the dog, "will you agree
to her marrying me if I change myself into a man?" This seemed a safe
promise to make, and the Chief agreed. The dog then stipulated that
he should be placed under a large bell and that no one should move
it or look into it for a space of 280 days.


The Chiefs Curiosity

This was done, and for 279 days the bell remained unmoved, but on
the 280th day the Chief could restrain his curiosity no longer,
and tilting up the bell saw that the dog had changed into a man
all except his head, the last day being required to complete the
transformation. However, the spell was now broken, and the result was
a man with a dog's head. Since it was the Chief's fault that, through
his over-inquisitiveness, the dog could not become altogether a man,
he was obliged to keep his promise, and the wedding duly took place,
the bridegroom's head being veiled for the occasion by a red mantilla.


The Origin of a Custom

Unfortunately the fruit of the union took more after their father
than their mother, and though comely of limb had exceedingly ugly
features. [50] They were therefore obliged to continue to wear the
head-covering adopted by their father at the marriage ceremony, and
this became so much an integral part of the tribal costume that not
only has it been worn ever since by their descendants, but a change
of headgear has become synonymous with a change of husbands or a
divorce. One account says that at the original bridal ceremony the
bride wore the red mantilla to prevent her seeing her husband's ugly
features, and that is why the headdress is worn by the women and not by
the men, or more generally by the former than the latter, though others
say that it was originally worn by the ugly children of both sexes.


And of a Worship

This legend explains the dog-worship of the Jung tribe, which now
consists of four clans, with a separate surname (Lei, Chung, Lang,
and Pan) to each, has a language of its own, and does not intermarry
with the Foochow natives. At about the time of the old Chinese New
Year (somewhere in February) they paint a large figure of a dog on a
screen and worship it, saying it is their ancestor who was victorious
over the Western invader.



Conclusion

If the greatness of nations is to be judged by the greatness of
their myths (using the word 'great' in the sense of world-famous
and of perennial influence), there would be few great nations, and
China would not be one of them. As stated in an earlier chapter, the
design has been to give an account of Chinese myth as it is, and not
as it might have been under imaginary conditions. But for the Chinese
philosophers we should in all probability have had more Chinese myths,
but philosophy is unifying, and without it we might have had a break-up
of China and perhaps no myths at all, or none specially belonging to
China as a whole and separate independent nation. Had there been great,
world-stirring myths there could hardly but have been also more wars,
more cruelty, more wounding of the "heart that weeps and trembles,"
more saturating of the earth with human blood. It is not a small thing
to have conquered myth with philosophy, especially at a time when the
Western world was still steeped in the grossest superstition. Therefore
we may be thankful that the Chinese were and are a peace-loving, sober,
agricultural, industrial, non-military, non-priest-ridden, literary,
and philosophical people, and that we have instead of great myths a
great people.

But if the real test of greatness is purity and justice, then Chinese
myth must be placed among the greatest of all; for it is not obscene,
and it is invariably just.



The Pronunciation of Chinese Words

During the course of Chinese history the restriction of intercourse
due to mountain-chains or other natural obstacles between various
tribes or divisions of the Chinese people led to the birth of a number
of families of languages, which again became the parents of numerous
local dialects. These dialects have in most cases restricted ranges,
so that that of one district may be partially or wholly unintelligible
to the natives of another situated at a distance of only a hundred
miles or less.

The Court or Government language is that spoken in Peking and the
metropolitan district, and is the language of official communication
throughout the country. Though neither the oldest nor the purest
Chinese dialect, it seems destined more than any other to come into
universal use in China. The natives of each province or district will
of course continue to speak to each other in their own particular
dialect, and foreign missionaries or merchants, for example, whose
special duties or transactions are connected with special districts
will naturally learn and use the dialects of those districts; but as
a means of intercommunication generally between natives of different
provinces, or between natives and foreigners, the Court language seems
likely to continue in use and to spread more and more over the whole
country. It is to this that the following remarks apply.

The essentials of correct pronunciation of Chinese are accuracy of
sound, tone, and rhythm.


Sound

_Vowels and Diphthongs_

_a_ as in _father_.

_ai_ as in Italian _amái_.

_ao_. Italian _ao_ in _Aosta_: sometimes _á-oo,_ the _au_ in _cauto_.

_e_ in _eh_, _en_, as in _yet_, _lens_.

_ei_. Nearly _ey_ in _grey_, but more as in Italian _lei_, _contei_.

_ê_. The vowel-sound in _lurk_.

_êi_. The foregoing _ê_ followed enclitically by _y_. _Money_ without
the _n_ = _mêi_.

_êrh._ The _urr_ in _purr_.

_i_. As a single or final syllable the vowel-sound in _ease_, _tree_;
in _ih_, _in_, _ing_, as in _chick_, _thing_.

_ia_ generally as in the Italian _Maria_.

_iai_. The _iai_ in the Italian _vecchiaia_.

_iao_ as in _ia_ and _ao_, with the terminal peculiarity of the latter.

_ie_ as in the Italian _siesta_.

_io_. The French _io_ in _pioche_.

_iu_ as a final, longer than the English _ew_. In _liu, niu_, almost
_leyew, neyew_. In _chiung, hsiung, iung_, is _eeyong_ (_o_ in _roll_).

_o._ Between vowel-sound in _awe_ and that in _roll_.

_ou._ Really _êo_; _ou_ in _round_.

_ü._ The vowel-sound in the French _tu, eût_.

_üa._ Only in _üan_, which in some tones is _üen_. The _u_ as above;
the _an_ as       in _antic_.

_üe_. The vowel-sounds in the French _tu es_.

_üo_. A disputed sound, used, if at all, interchangeably with _io_
in certain       syllables.

_u_. The _oo_ in _too_; in _un_ and _ung_ as in the Italian _punto_.

_ua_. Nearly _ooa_, in many instances contracting to _wa_.

_uai_ as in the Italian _guai_.

_uei._ The vowel-sounds in the French _jouer_.

_uê._ Only in final _uên_ = _ú-un_; frequently _wên_ or _wun_.

_ui._ The vowel-sounds in _screwy_; in some tones _uei_.

_uo._ The Italian _uo_ in _fuori_; often _wo_, and at times nearly
_oo_.

_u._ Between the _i_ in _bit_ and the _u_ in _shut_.

_Consonants_

_ch_ as in _chair_; but before _ih_ softened to _dj_.

_ch'_. A strong breathing. _Mu_ch-ha_rm_ without the italicized
letters = _ch'a_.

_f_ as in farm.

_h_ as _ch_ in Scotch _loch_.

_hs_. A slight aspirate preceding and modifying the sibilant, which is,
however, the stronger of the two consonants; _e.g. hsing_ = _hissing_
without the first _i_,

_j_. Nearly the French _j_ in _jaune_; the English _s_ in _fusion_.

_k_. _c_ in _car_, _k_ in _king_; but when following other sounds
often softened to       _g_ in _go, gate_.

_k'_. The aspirate as in _ch'_. _Ki_ck-ha_rd_ without the italicized
letters =        _k'a_; and _ki_ck-he_r_ == _k'ê_.

_l_ as in English.

_m_ as in English.

_n_ as in English.

_ng_. The italicized letters in the French mo_n ga_lant = _nga_;
mo_n gai_llard = _ngai_; so_n go_sier = _ngo_.

_p_ as in English.

_p'_ The Irish pronunciation of _p_arty, _p_arliament. _Sla_p-ha_rd_
without the italicized letters = _p'a_.

_s_ as in English.

_sh_ as in English.

_ss_. Only in _ssu_. The object of employing _ss_ is to fix attention
on the peculiar vowel-sound _u_ (see above).

_t_ as in English.

_t'_ The Irish _t_ in _t_orment. _Hi_t-ha_rd_ without the italicized
letters = _t'a_.

_ts_ as in _jetsam_; after another word softened to _ds_ in _gladsome_.

_ts'._ The aspirate intervening, as in _ch'_, etc. _Be_ts-ha_rd_
without the italicized         letters = _ts'a_.

_tz_. Employed to mark the peculiarity of the final _u_; hardly of
greater power than _ts_.

_tz'_ like _ts'_. This, _tz_, and _ss_ used only before _u_.

_w_ as in English; but very faint, or even non-existent, before _ü_.

_y_ as in English; but very faint before _i_ or _ü_.


Tone

The correct pronunciation of the sound (_yin_) is not sufficient to
make a Chinese spoken word intelligible. Unless the tone (_shêng_),
or musical note, is simultaneously correctly given, either the wrong
meaning or no meaning at all will be conveyed. The tone is the key in
which the voice is pitched. Accent is a 'song added to,' and tone is
emphasized accent. The number of these tones differs in the different
dialects. In Pekingese there are now four. They are best indicated
in transliteration by numbers added to the sound, thus:

_pa_ (1) _pa_ (2) _pa_ (3) _pa_ (4)

To say, for example, _pa_ (3) instead of _pa_ (1) would be as great
a mistake as to say 'grasp' instead of 'trumpet.' Correctness of tone
cannot be learnt except by oral instruction.


Rhythm

What tone is to the individual sound rhythm is to the sentence. This
also, together with proper appreciation of the mutual modifications
of tone and rhythm, can be correctly acquired only by oral instruction.



NOTES

[1] The inventions of the Chinese during a period of four thousand
years may be numbered on the fingers of one hand.

[2] _East of Asia Magazine_, i, 15-16.

[3] _Cf_. Aristotle's belief that bugs arose spontaneously from sweat.

[4] For the Buddhist account see _China Review_, xi, 80-82.

[5] Compare the Japanese legend, which relates that the Sun-goddess was
induced to come out of a cave by being tempted to gaze at herself in a
mirror. See _Myths and Legends of Japan_, F. Hadland Davis, pp. 27-28.

[6] See _Myths of the Norsemen_, by H. A. Guerber. These resemblances
and the further one--namely, the dualism in the prechaotic epoch
(a very interesting point in Scandinavian mythology)--illustrate the
danger of inferring identity of origin from similarity of physical,
intellectual, or moral results. Several remarkable parallelisms of
Chinese religious and mythological beliefs with those recorded in
the Hebrew scriptures may also be briefly noted. There is an age
of virtue and happiness, a garden with a tree bearing 'apples of
immortality,' guarded by a winged serpent (dragon), the fall of man,
the beginnings of lust and war (the doctrine of original sin), a great
flood, virgin-born god-men who rescue man from barbarism and endow
him with superhuman attributes, discipleship, worship of a Virgin
Mother, trinities, monasticism, celibacy, fasting, preaching, prayers,
primeval Chaos, Paradise, etc. For details see _Chinese Repository,_
vii, 520-521.

[7] _Cf._ the dwarfs in the Scandinavian myth.

[8] See Legge, _Shu ching_, ii, 320, note.

[9] In order to avoid misunderstanding, it is as well to note that the
mention of the _t'ai chi_ in the _Canon of Changes (I ching_) no more
constituted monism the philosophy of China than did the steam-driven
machinery mentioned by Hero of Alexandria constitute the first century
B.C. the 'age of steam.' Similarly, to take another example, the idea
of the earth's rotundity, though conceived centuries before Ptolemy
in the second century, did not become established before the sixteenth
century. It was, in fact, from the _I ching_ that the Chinese derived
their _dualistic_ (not their monistic) conception of the world.

[10] "Formerly, I, Chuang Chou, dreamt that I was a butterfly, flying
about and feeling that it was enjoying itself. I did not know that
it was Chou. Suddenly I awoke and was myself again, the veritable
Chou. I did not know whether it had formerly been Chou dreaming that
he was a butterfly, or whether it was now a butterfly dreaming that
it was Chou." _Chuang Tzu_, Book II.

[11] See the present writer's _China of the Chinese_, chapter viii.

[12] See Du Bose, pp. 282, 286, 361, 409, 410, and _Journal of the
North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, xxxiv, 110-111.

[13] Du Bose, p. 38.

[14] He is sometimes represented as a reincarnation of Wên Chung;
see p. 198.

[16] See footnote, p. 107.

[17] _Religion_, p. 177.

[18] See _Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists_, by Sister Nivedita and
Ananda Coomaraswamy.

[19] The native accounts differ on this point. _Cf._ p. 16.

[20] For further details concerning T'ai I see _Babylonian and Oriental
Record_, vi, 145-150.

[21] _Cf._ Chapter I.

[22] She is the same as Ch'ang Ô, the name Hêng being changed to
Ch'ang because it was the tabooed personal name of the Emperors Mu
Tsung of the T'ang dynasty and Chên Tsung of the Sung dynasty.

[23] See p. 45.

[24] In Sagittarius, or the Sieve; Chinese constellation of the
Leopard.

[25] See Chapter XIV.

[26] See Chapter XII.

[27] This pagoda is distant about twenty _li_ (seven miles) from
Peking. It is on the top of the hill, while the spring is at the foot,
half a _li_ distant. The imperial family used the water from this
spring, whence it was carried to Peking in carts.

[28] See Chapter XII.

[29] See Chapter IV.

[30] This has reference to the change of Kuan Yin from the masculine
to the feminine gender, already mentioned.

[31] There is evidently a mistake here, since the King was twenty
when he ascended the throne and fifty at the birth of Miao Shan.

[32] _An Illustrated Account of the Eight Immortals' Mission to
the East_.

[33] A record of a journey to the Western Paradise to procure
the Buddhist scriptures for the Emperor of China. The work is a
dramatization of the introduction of Buddhism into China.

[34] See p. 329.

[35] See p. 195.

[36] Literally 'golden oranges.' These are skilfully preserved by
the Cantonese, and form a delicious sweetmeat for dessert.

[37] Only slave-girls and women of the poorer classes and old women
omit this very important part of a Chinese lady's toilet.

[38] Alluding probably to the shape of the 'shoe' or ingot of silver.

[39] Slave-girls do not have their feet compressed.

[40] Wherein resides an old gentleman who ties together with a red cord
the feet of those destined to become man and wife. From this bond there
is no escape, no matter what distance may separate the affianced pair.

[41] This proceeding is highly improper, but is 'winked at' in a
large majority of Chinese betrothals.

[42] The usual occupation of poor scholars who are ashamed to go
into trade and who have not enterprise enough to start as doctors or
fortune-tellers. Besides painting pictures and fans, and illustrating
books, these men write fancy scrolls in the various ornamental styles
so much prized by the Chinese; they keep accounts for people, and
write or read business and private letters for the illiterate masses.

[43] Say about £10.

[44] Alchemy is first mentioned in Chinese history B.C. 133, and was
widely cultivated in China during the Han dynasty by priests of the
Taoist religion.

[45] Kuan Chung and Pao Shu are the Chinese types of friendship. They
were two statesmen of considerable ability who flourished in the
seventh century B.C.

[46] These are used, together with a heavy wooden _bâton_, by the
Chinese washerman, the effect being most disastrous to a European
wardrobe.

[47] To provide coffins for poor people has ever been regarded as
an act of transcendent merit. The tornado at Canton in April 1878,
in which several thousand lives were lost, afforded an admirable
opportunity for the exercise of this form of charity--an opportunity
which was largely taken advantage of by the benevolent.

[48] For usurping its prerogative by allowing Chia to obtain wealth.

[49] See Chapter I.

[50] Compare the legend of the tailed Miao Tzu tribes named Yao,
'mountain-dogs' or 'jackals,' living on the mountain ranges in the
north-west of Kuangtung Province, related in the _Jih chi so chih_.





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